The road to the unconscious self not taken: Discrepancies between self- and observer-inferences about implicit dispositions from nonverbal behavioural cues

European Journal of Personality

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 343-366

  Hofmann, Wilhelm ^a   Gschwendner, Tobias ^b   Schmitt, Manfred ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

^b University of Koblenz Landau ^*  (Germany)

Author keywords

Implicit personality traits; Nonverbal behaviour; Self knowledge; Self perception; Trait inferences

Indexed keywords

EID: 66749109325     PISSN: 08902070     EISSN: 10990984     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/per.722     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Ambady, N., Bernieri, F., & Richeson, J. A. (2000). Toward a histology of social behavior: Judgmental accuracy from thin slices of the behavioral stream. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 32, pp. 201-271). San Diego: Academic Press.
2. Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380-393.
3. Bargh, J. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In J. R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1-61). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
4. Becker, P. (1987). Interaktions-Angstfragebogen (IAF) (2. Auflage). Weinheim: Beltz.
5. Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 1-62). New York: Academic Press.
6. Borkenau, P., & Liebler, A. (1992). Trait inferences: Sources of validity at zero acquaintance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 645-657.
7. Borkenau, P., & Ostendorf, F.(1993). Neo-Fünf-Faktoren-Inventar nach Costa und McCrae. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
8. Brunswik, E. (1956). Perception and the representative design of psychological experiments. Berkeley: University of California Press.
9. Carver, C. S., Antoni, M., & Scheier, M. F. (1985). Self-consciousness and self-assessment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 117-124.
10. Collins, L. M., Graham, J. W., & Flaherty, B. P. (1998). An alternative framework for defining mediation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 33, 295-312.
11. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO five factor inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
12. DePaulo, B. M. (1992). Nonverbal behavior and self-presentation. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 203-243.
13. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68.
14. Dunlap, K. (1912). The case against introspection. Psychological Review, 19, 404-413.
15. Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002). Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1441-1455.
16. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1974). Detecting deception from body or face. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 288-298.
17. Epstein, S. (1990). Cognitive-experiential self-theory. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality. Theory and research (pp. 165-192). New York: Guilford.
18. Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255-278.
19. Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and uses. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
20. Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 522-527.
21. Festinger, L. (Ed.). (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
22. Filipp, S.-H., & Freudenberg, E. (1989). Der Fragebogen zur Erfassung dispositioneller Selbstaufmerksamkeit (SAM-Fragebogen). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
23. Freud, S. (1915). Das Unbewußte [The unconscious]. In S. Freud (Ed.), Das Ich und das Es und andere metapsychologische Schriften (1960) (pp. 73-104). Frankfurt a. M: Fischer.
24. Funder, D. C. (1995). On the accuracy of personality judgment: A realisitc approach. Psychological Review, 102, 652-670.
25. Funder, D. C., & Colvin, C. R. (1997). Congruence of others' and self-judgments of personality. In J. A. Johnson, & R. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 617-647). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
26. Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006). Are 'implicit' attitudes unconscious? Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 15, 485.
27. Gawronski, B., & LeBel, E. P. (2008). Understanding patterns of attitude change: When implicit measures show change, but explicit measures do not. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1355-1361.
28. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
29. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
30. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test I: An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216.
31. Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E., & Banaji, M. R. (in press). Understanding and using the implicit association test III: Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
32. Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
33. Hixon, J. G., & Swann, W. B. (1993). When does introspection bear fruit? Self-reflection, self-insight, and interpersonal choices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 35-43.
34. Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1369-1385.
35. Hofmann, W., Gschwendner, T., & Schmitt, M. (2005). On implicit-explicit consistency: The moderating role of individual differences in awareness and adjustment. European Journal of Personality, 19, 25-49.
36. Hofmann, W., & Wilson, T. D. (in press). Consciousness, introspection, and the adaptive unconscious. In B. Gawronski & B. K. Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition. New York: Guilford.
37. James, W. (1890/1950). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
38. Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2004). LISREL 8.7. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software Inc.
39. Kenny, D. A. (1991). A general model of consensus and accuracy in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 92, 155-163.
40. Kenny, D. A. (1994). Interpersonal perception: A social relations analysis. New York: Guilford.
41. Kolar, D. W., Funder, D. C., & Colvin, C. R. (1996). Comparing the accuracy of personality judgments by the self and knowledgeable others. Journal of Personality, 64, 311-337.
42. Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
43. MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83-104.
44. Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
45. Mierke, J., & Klauer, K. C. (2003). Method-specific variance in the implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1180-1192.
46. Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231-259.
47. Nosek, B. A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 565-584.
48. Patterson, M. L. (1995). A parallel process model of nonverbal communication. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 19, 3-29.
49. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research and Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731.
50. Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Assessing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate behavioral research, 42, 185-227.
51. Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2005). Thin slices of racial bias. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29, 75-86.
52. Robins, R. W., & John, O. P. (1997). The quest for self-insight: Theory and research on accuracy in self-perception. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 649-679). New York: Academic Press.
53. Sedikides, C., & Strube, M. J. (1997). Self evaluation: To thine own self be good, to thine own self be sure, to thine own self be true, and to thine own self be better. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 209-269). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
54. Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445.
55. Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Theory and research on anxiety. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior (pp. 3-20). New York: Academic Press.
56. Steyer, R., Schmitt, M., & Eid, M. (1999). Latent state-trait theory and research in personality and individual differences. European Journal of Personality, 13, 389-408.
57. Storms, M. D. (1973). Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing actors' and observers' points of view. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 165-175.
58. Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 220-247.
59. Taylor, S. E., & Fiske, S. T. (1975). Point of view and perceptions of causality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 439-445.
60. Tedeschi, J. T. (Ed.), (1981). Impression management. New York: Academic Press.
61. Wilson, T. D. (2002). Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
62. Wilson, T. D., Dunn, D. S., Kraft, D., & Lisle, D. J. (1989). Introspection, attitude change, and attitude-behavior consistency: The disruptive effects of explaining why we feel the way we do. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 287-343). New York: Academic Press.
63. Wilson, T. D., & Dunn, E. (2004). Self-knowledge: Its limits, value, and potential for improvement. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 493-518.
64. Wittenbrink, B., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (2007). Implicit measures of attitudes: Procedures and controversies. New York: Guilford.