A metacognitive perspective on the cognitive deficits experienced in intellectually threatening environments

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Volumn 35, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 584-596

  Schmader, Toni ^a,c   Forbes, Chad E ^a   Shen Zhang, ^a   Berry Mendes, Wendy ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c University of Arizona   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Emotional reappraisal; Stereotype threat; Sympathetic activation; Test performance; Working memory

Indexed keywords

AMYLASE;

ANXIETY; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; BLOOD; CAUCASIAN; CHEMISTRY; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EMOTION; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMAN; INDIVIDUALITY; INTELLIGENCE TEST; MALE; MINORITY GROUP; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERCEPTION; PHYSIOLOGY; PROBLEM SOLVING; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SALIVA; SELF CONCEPT; SHORT TERM MEMORY; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ALPHA-AMYLASES; ANXIETY; AROUSAL; COGNITION DISORDERS; CULTURE; EMOTIONS; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; INTELLIGENCE TESTS; MALE; MEMORY, SHORT-TERM; MINORITY GROUPS; PROBLEM SOLVING; SALIVA; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 65449184964     PISSN: 01461672     EISSN: 15527433     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0146167208330450     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. Aiken, L.S., & West, S.G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2. Aronson, J., Lustina, M.J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C.M., & Brown, J. (1999). When White men can't do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 29-46.
3. Beilock, S.L., Rydell, R.J., & McConnell, A.R., (2007). Stereotype threat and working memory: Mechanisms, alleviation, and spill-over. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 256-276.
4. Ben-Zeev, T., Fein, S., & Inzlicht, M. (2005). Arousal and stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 174-181. (Pubitemid 40256515)
5. Blascovich, J., Mendes, W.B., Hunter, S., & Salomon, K. (1999). Social facilitation as challenge and threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 68-77.
6. Blascovich, J., Spencer, S.J., Quinn, D., & Steele, C. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225-229. (Pubitemid 33653535)
7. Bosson, J.K., Haymovitz, E.L., & Pinel, E.C. (2004). When saying and doing diverge: The effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus non-verbal anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 247-255. (Pubitemid 38334355)
8. Briñol, P., & Petty, R.E. (2003). Overt head movements and persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1123-1139. (Pubitemid 37189374)
9. Briñol, P., Petty, R.E., & Barden, J. (2007). Happiness versus sadness as a determinant of thought confidence in persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 711-727.
10. Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Rosabianca, A., & Kiesner, J. (2005). Why do women underperform under stereotype threat? Evidence for the role of negative thinking. Psychological Science, 16, 572-578. (Pubitemid 41186752)
11. Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: The psychological hazards of "model minority" status. Psychological Science, 11, 399-402.
12. Croizet, J.C., Despres, G., Gauzins, M., Hugeut, P., & Leyens, J. (2004). Stereotype threat undermines performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 721-731. (Pubitemid 38614655)
13. Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P.A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 450-466.
14. Educational Testing Service. (2002). Practice to take the GRE General Test (10 th Ed.). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
15. Forbes, C.E., Schmader, T., & Allen, J.J.B. (2008). Error monitoring in an intellectually threatening environment. Social Cognitive Affective Neuroscience, 3, 253-261.
16. Granger, D.A., Kivlighan, K.T., Blair, C., El-Sheikh, M., Mize, J., Lisonbee, J.A., et al. (2006). Integrating the measurement of salivary alpha amylase into studies of child health, development, and social relationships. Journal of Personal and Social Relationships, 23, 267-290.
17. Inzlicht, M., McKay, L., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stigma as ego depletion: How being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychological Science, 17, 262-269.
18. Johns, M.J., Inzlicht, M., & Schmader, T. (2008). Stereotype threat and executive resource depletion: Examining the influence of emotion regulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 691-705.
19. Johns, M., & Schmader, T. (in press). Metacognitive regulation of feeling states in stereotype threat. In R. M. Arkin, K. C. Oleson, & P. J. Carroll (Eds.), The uncertain self: A handbook of perspectives from social and personality psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
20. Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women's math performance. Psychological Science, 16, 175-179. (Pubitemid 40447717)
21. Jost, J.T., Kruglanski, A.W., & Nelson, T.O. (1998). Social metacognition: An expansionist review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 137-154. (Pubitemid 128073346)
22. Klein, K., & Boals, A. (2001). The relationship of life event stress and working memory capacity. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 565-579. (Pubitemid 33673436)
23. Lazarus, R.S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 352-367.
24. Lovallo, W.R., & Thomas, T.L. (2000). Stress hormones in psychophysiological research: Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive implications. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (2 nd ed., pp. 342-367). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
25. Major, B., & Schmader, T. (1998). Coping with stigma through psychological disengagement. In J. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 220-243). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
26. Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., & Schimel, J. (2006). Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self-affirmation on women's intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 236-243.
27. Marx, D.M., & Roman, J.S. (2002). Female role models: Protecting female students' math test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1185-1197. (Pubitemid 41301414)
28. Marx, D.M., & Stapel, D.A. (2006). It's all in the timing: Measuring emotional reactions to stereotype threat before and after taking a test. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 687-698.
29. Mendes, W.B., Blascovich, J., Lickel, B., & Hunter, S. (2002). Challenge and threat during social interaction with White and Black men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 939-952. (Pubitemid 41309681)
30. Mendes, W.B., Major, B., McCoy, S., & Blascovich, J. (2008). How attributional ambiguity shapes physiological and emotional responses to social rejection and acceptance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 278-291.
31. Murphy, M., Steele, C., & Gross, J. (2007). Signaling threat: How situational cues affect women in math, science, and engineering. Psychological Science, 18, 879-885.
32. Navazesh, M. (1993). Methods for collecting saliva. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 694, 72-77. (Pubitemid 23298232)
33. Rohleder, N., Wolf, J.M., Maldonado, E.F., & Kirschbaum, C. (2006). The psychosocial stress-induced increase in salivary alpha-amylase is independent of saliva flow rate. Psychophysiology, 43, 645-652. (Pubitemid 44657109)
34. Schachter, S., & Singer, J.E. (1962). Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional states. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
35. Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 440-452. (Pubitemid 37170557)
36. Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115, 336-356.
37. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G.L. (1983). Mood, misattribution and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513-523.
38. Shih, M., Ambady, N., Richeson, J.A., Fujita, K., & Gray, H.M. (2002). Stereotype performance boosts: The impact of self-relevance and the manner of stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 638-647.
39. Spencer, S.J., Steele, C.M., & Quinn, D.M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.
40. Stangor, C., Carr, C., & Kiang, L. (1998). Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1191-1197.
41. Steele, C.M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape the intellectual identities and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629. (Pubitemid 127458590)
42. Steele, C.M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
43. Steele, C.M., Spencer, S.J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 379-440). New York: Academic Press.
44. Stone, J., Lynch, C.I., Sjomeling, M., & Darley, J.M. (1999). Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1213-1227.
45. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227). New York: Academic Press.
46. Turner, M.L., & Engle, R.W. (1989). Is working memory task dependent ? Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 127-154.
47. Walton, G.M., & Cohen, G.L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 82-96.
48. Watkins, E. (2004). Appraisals and strategies associated with rumination and worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 679-694. (Pubitemid 39072495)
49. Wells, A. (1995). Metacognition and worry: A cognitive model of generalised anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 301-320.
50. Wheeler, S.C., & Petty, R.E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 797-826. (Pubitemid 33646583)