Risk Assessment and Communication Tools for Genotype Associations with Multifactorial Phenotypes: The Concept of "edge Effect" and Cultivating an Ethical Bridge between Omics Innovations and Society

OMICS A Journal of Integrative Biology

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 43-61

  Ozdemir, Vural ^a   Suarez Kurtz, Guilherme ^b   Stenne, Raphaëlle ^a   Somogyi, Andrew A ^c   Someya, Toshiyuki ^d   Kayaalp, S Ouz ^e   Kolker, Eugene ^f,g,h  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^b INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE CÂNCER   (Brazil)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^d NIIGATA UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND DENTAL SCIENCES   (Japan)

^e HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^f SEATTLE CHILDREN S RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^g SEATTLE CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAZIL; ETHICS; GENE LOCUS; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOMICS; GENOTYPE; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE CORRELATION; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HUMAN; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; METAGENOMICS; PHARMACOGENOMICS; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT;

BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; COMMUNICATION; DIAGNOSIS; GENOMICS; GENOTYPE; HUMANS; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHENOTYPE; POPULATION; RISK ASSESSMENT; WARFARIN;

EID: 64949127696     PISSN: 15362310     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/omi.2009.0011     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Anderson, L., and Anderson, N.G. (1977). High resolution two-dimensional electrophoresis of human plasma proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74, 5421-5425.
2. Anderson, N.G., and Anderson, N.L. (1996). Twenty years of two-dimensional electrophoresis: past, present and future. Electrophoresis 17, 443-453.
3. Anderson, N.G., Matheson, A., and Anderson, N.L. (2001). Back to the future: the human protein index (HPI) and the agenda for post-proteomic biology. Proteomics 1, 3-12.
4. Aubert, E. (1989). Drawing the line [video recording]: a portrait of Keith Haring. Biografilm Associates. W. Long Branch, N.J., USA. Kultur [distributor].
5. Baccini, M., Bachmaier, E.M., Biggeri, A., Boekschoten, M.V., Bouwman, F.G., Brennan, L., et al. (2008). The NuGO proof of principle study package: a collaborative research effort of the European Nutrigenomics Organisation. Genes Nutr 3, 147-151.
6. Bertilsson, L., Alm, C., De Las Carreras, C., Widen, J., Edman, G., and Schalling, D. (1989). Debrisoquine hydroxylation polymorphism and personality. Lancet 1, 555.
7. Birmingham, K. (2001). Dark clouds over Toronto psychiatry research. Nat Med 7(6), 643.
8. Blankeslee, A.F., and Salmon, M.R. (1931). Odor and taste-blindness. Eugen News 16, 105-110.
9. Blaschke, T.F., and Giacomini, K.M. (2004). Obituary. Lewis B. Sheiner, 1940-2004. Clin Pharmacol Ther 76, 650-651.
10. Brewer, G.J. (1971). Annotation: human ecology, an expanding role for the human geneticist. Am J Hum Genet 23, 92-94.
11. Brown, N. (2003). Hope against hype-Accountability in biopasts, presents and futures. Sci Stud 16, 3-21.
12. Brown, N., Rappert, B., and Webster A. (2000). Contested futures: a sociology of prospective techno-science. (Ashgate, Aldershot, UK).
13. Burgess, M., O'Doherty, K., and Secko, D. (2008). Biobanking in British Columbia: discussions of the future of personalized medicine through deliberative public engagement. Personal Med 5, 285-296.
14. Carson, P.E., Flanagan, C.L., Ickes, C.E., and Alvong, A.S. (1956). Enzymatic deficiency in primaquine sensitive erythrocytes. Science 124, 484-485.
15. Caulfield, T. (2003). Sustainability and the balancing of the health care and innovation agendas: commercialization of genetic research. Saskatchewan Law Rev 66, 629-645.
16. CDER, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2006). Drug Development and Drug Interactions: Table of Substrates, Inhibitors and Induc-ers. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/drugInter- actions/tableSubstrates.htm#4. Accessed January 2, 2009.
17. Chinn, L.W., and Kroetz, D.L. (2007). ABCB1 pharmacogenetics: progress, pitfalls, and promise. Clin Pharmacol Ther 81, 265- 269.
18. Choi, B.C., Pang, T., Lin, V., Puska, P., Sherman, G., Goddard, M., et al. (2005). Can scientists and policy makers work together? J Epidemiol Community Health 59, 632-637.
19. Compagni, A., Bartoli, S., Buehrlen, B., Fattore, G., Ibarreta, D., and de Mesa, E.G. (2008). Avoiding adverse drug reactions by pharmacogenetic testing: a systematic review of the economic evidence in the case of TPMT and AZA-induced side effects. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 24, 294-302.
20. Cooper, G.M., Johnson, J.A., Langaee, T.Y., Feng, H., Stanaway, I.B., Schwarz, U.I., et al. (2008). A genome-wide scan for common genetic variants with a large influence on warfarin maintenance dose. Blood 112, 1022-1027.
21. Daar, A.S., Berndtson, K., Persad, D.L., and Singer, P.A. (2007). How can developing countries harness biotechnology to improve health? BMC Public Health 7, 346.
22. Daly, A.K., and King, B.P. (2006). Contribution of CYP2C9 to variability in vitamin K antagonist metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2, 3-15.
23. Davis, DR, Hackert, M.L., and Reed, L.J. (2008). Roger J. Williams. 1893-1988. A Biographical Memoir (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC). Available at: http://books.nap.edu/ html/biomems/rwilliams.pdf. Accessed January 2, 2009.
24. de Bernières, L. (2004). Birds Without Wings. (Vintage Books, Random House: London). pp. 1-625. dnde Leon, J. (2008, Oct 17). The future (or lack of future) of personalized prescription in psychiatry. Pharmacol Res [Epub ahead of print].
25. Dengler, H. J., and Eichelbaum, M. (1977). Polymorphismen und Defekte des Arzneimittelstoffwechsels als Ursache toxischer Reaktionen. Arzneim. Forsch. (Drug Res.) 27, 1836-1844.
26. Detienne, M. (1972). La Mythologie des Aromates en Grèce. Les Jardins d'Adonis (Gallimard, Paris). pp. 76-113.
27. De Vries, R., and Lemmens, T. (2006). The social and cultural shaping of medical evidence: case studies from pharmaceutical research and obstetric science. Soc Sci Med 62, 2694-2706.
28. Dreyfus, H.L., and Rabinow, P. (1982). Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL).
29. Dunwell, J.M. (2009). Transgenic wheat, barley and oats: future prospects. Methods Mol Biol 478, 333-345.
30. Edelson, E. (2008). Genetic test predicts response to warfarin. U.S. News and World Report (August 14).
31. Eichelbaum, M., Spannbrucker, N., and Dengler, H.J. (1975a). N-oxidation of sparteine in man and its interindividual differences. Arch. Pharmacol. 287, R94.
32. Eichelbaum, M., Spannbrucker, N., and Dengler, H. J. (1975b). Lack of N-oxidation of sparteine in certain healthy subjects. Sixth International Congress of Pharmacology, Helsinki, July 20-25, 1071.
33. Eichelbaum, M., Spannbrucker, N., Steincke, B., and Dengler, H.J. (1979). Defective N-oxidation of sparteine in man: a new pharmacogenetic defect. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 16, 183-187.
34. Einsiedel, E.F. (2009). Emerging Technologies: From Hindsight to Foresight (UBC Press, Vancouver). pp. 1-328.
35. Evans, D.A., Manley, K.A., and McKusick, V.A. (1960). Genetic control of isoniazid metabolism in man. Br Med J 2, 4484-4491.
36. Fishman, J.R. (2004). Manufacturing desire: the commodification of female sexual dysfunction. Soc Stud Sci 34, 187-218.
37. Flockhart, D.A. (2007). Drug Interactions: Cytochrome P450 Drug Interaction Table. (Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, IN). http://medicine.iupui.edu/flockhart/table. htm Accessed [January 2, 2009]
38. Food and Drug Administration. US Department of Health and Human Services. (2004). Innovation/stagnation. Challenge and Opportunity on the Critical Path to New Medical Products. Washington, DC: Food and Drug Administration.
39. Foucault, M. (1994). Genealogy and Social Criticism. In: The Postmodern Turn: New Perspectives on Social Theory. S. Seidman, ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA) (reprinted from Foucault, M. Power/knowledge. Pantheon Books, 1977).
40. Fox, A.L. (1932). The relationship between chemical constitution and taste. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 18, 115-120.
41. Frueh, F.W., and Gurwitz, D. (2004). From pharmacogenetics to personalized medicine: a vital need for educating health professionals and the community. Pharmacogenomics 5, 571-579.
42. Gaedigk, A., Simon, S.D., Pearce, R.E., Bradford, L.D., Kennedy, M.J., Leeder, J.S. (2008). The CYP2D6 activity score: translating genotype information into a qualitative measure of phe-notype. Clin Pharmacol Ther 83, 234-242.
43. Gage, B., Eby, C., Johnson, J., Deych, E., Rieder, M., Ridker, P., et al. (2008). Use of pharmacogenetic and clinical factors to predict the therapeutic dose of warfarin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 84, 326-331.
44. Garrod, A.E. (1902). Incidence of Alkaptonuria: A study in Chemical Individuality. Lancet 2, 653-656.
45. Garrod, A.E. (1909). Inborn Errors of Metabolism (London, Oxford University Press).
46. Garrod, A.E. (1931). The Inborn Factors in Disease: An Essay (Clare-don Press, Oxford).
47. Gene Tests. (2008). Funded by the National Institutes of Health. Available at: www.genetests.org Accessed January 2, 2009.
48. George, J.M. (2003). An emerging discourse toward epistemic diversity in nursing. Adv Nurs Sci 26, 44-52.
49. Giacomini, K.M., Brett, C.M., Altman, R.B., Benowitz, N.L., Dolan, M.E., Flockhart, D.A., et al. (2007). The pharmacoge-netics research network: from SNP discovery to clinical drug response. Clin Pharmacol Ther 81, 328-345.
50. Godard, B., and Ozdemir, V. (2008). Nutrigenomics and personalized diet: from molecule to intervention and nutri-ethics. OMICS 12, 227-228.
51. Gonzalez, F.J., Skoda, R.C., Kimura, S., Umeno, M., Zanger, U.M., Nebert, D.W., et al. (1988). Characterization of the common genetic-defect in humans deficient in debrisoquine metabolism. Nature 331, 442-446.
52. González, I., Peñas-Lledó, E.M., Pérez, B., Dorado, P., Alvarez, M., and Lerena, A. (2008). Relation between CYP2D6 pheno-type and genotype and personality in healthy volunteers. Pharmacogenomics 29, 833-840.
53. Gottweis H. (2005). Governing genomics in the 21st century: between risk and uncertainty. New Genet Soc 24, 175-193.
54. Gregory, T.R. (2005). Genome size evolution in animals. In: The Evolution of the Genome. T.R. Gregory, ed. (Elsevier: San Diego, CA). pp. 3-87.
55. Gunes, A., and Dahl, M.L. (2008). Variation in CYP1A2 activity and its clinical implications: influence of environmental factors and genetic polymorphisms. Pharmacogenomics 9, 625-637.
56. Guo, S.W., and Reed, D.R. (2001). The genetics of phenylthio-carbamide perception. Ann Hum Biol 28, 111-142.
57. Gurwitz, D., Lunshof, J.E., Dedoussis, G., Flordellis, C.S., Fuhr, U., Kirchheiner, J., et al. (2005). Pharmacogenomics education: International Society of Pharmacogenomics recommendations for medical, pharmaceutical, and health schools deans of education. Pharmacogenomics J 5, 221-225.
58. Gurwitz, D., and Lunshof, J. (2008, Nov 12). Personalized phar-macotherapy: genotypes, biomarkers, and beyond. Clin Pharmacol Ther [Epub ahead of print].
59. Gurwitz, D., and Motulsky, A.G. (2007). "Drug reactions, enzymes, and biochemical genetics": 50 years later. Pharma-cogenomics 8, 1479-1484.
60. Guston, D. (2007). Toward Anticipatory Governance. http:// nanohub.org/resources/3270 [Accessed February 6, 2009].
61. Guston, D.H. (2008). Innovation policy: not just a jumbo shrimp. Nature 454(7207), 940-941.
62. Guston, D.H., Sarewitz, D., and Miller, C. (2009). Scientists not immune to partisanship. Science 323(5914), 582.
63. Haldane, J.B.S. (1938). Heredity and Politics (W.W. Norton, New York).
64. Harding, S. (1998). Is Science Multicultural? Postcolonialisms, Feminisms, and Epistemologies. Indiana University Press, Bloom-ington, IN). pp. 1-242.
65. Harrison, P. (2001). Curiosity, forbidden knowledge, and the reformation of natural philosophy in early modern England. Isis 92, 265-290.
66. Havel, V. (1999). Address by Vaclav Havel President of the Czech Republic in acceptance of "Open Society" Prize by the Central European University. Budapest, June 24. Available online at: http://old.hrad.cz/ president/Havel/speeches/1999/ 2406-uk.html Accessed January 2, 2009.
67. Healy, D. (2007). One flew over the conflict of interest nest. World Psychiat 6, 26-27.
68. Hedgecoe, A. (2004). The Politics of Personalised Medicine-Pharma cogenetics in the Clinic. Cambridge Studies in Society and the Life Sciences (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). pp. 1-208.
69. Hikmet, N. (2009). Human Landscapes from My Country: An Epic Novel in Verse. In: Hirsch, E. (foreword), Blasing, R. (translator), Konuk, M. (translator). (Persea Books, New York).
70. Hopkins, M.M., Ibarreta, D., Gaisser, S., Enzing, C.M., Ryan, J., Martin, P.A., et al. (2006). Putting pharmacogenetics into practice. Nat Biotechnol 24, 403-410.
71. Ibarreta, D. (2008). Interview. Personal Med 5, 331-334.
72. Ingelman-Sundberg, M., Daly, A.K., Nebert, D.M., eds. (2008). Human Cytochrome P450 (CYP) Allele Nomenclature Committee. http://www.cypalleles. ki.se/index.htm Accessed [February 6, 2009]
73. Joyce, J. (1998). Ulysses: A Facsimile of the First Edition Published in Paris in 1922. (Orchises Press, Washington, DC).
74. Kalow, W. (1962). Pharmacogenetics. Heredity and the Response to Drugs. (W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA).
75. Kalow, W. (1992). Pharmacoanthropology and the genetics of drug metabolism. In Pharmacogenetics of Drug Metabolism; W. Kalow, ed. (Pergamon Press Inc, New York). pp. 865-877.
76. Kalow, W. (2001). Pharmacogenetics in perspective. Drug Metab Dispos 29(4 Pt 2), 468-470.
77. Kalow, W. (2002). Both populations and individuals are evolutionary targets: pharmacogenomic and cultural indicators. Pharmacogenomics J 2, 12-14.
78. Kaput, J., Astley, S., Renkema, M., Ordovas, J., and van Ommen, B. (2006). Harnessing nutrigenomics: development of web-based communication, databases, resources, and tools. Genes Nutr 1, 5-11.
79. Kaye, J. (2008). The regulation of direct-to-consumer genetic tests. Hum Mol Genet 17(R2), R180-183.
80. Khoury, M.J., Berg, A., Coates, R., Evans, J., Teutsch, S.M., and Bradley, L.A. (2008). The evidence dilemma in genomic medicine. Health Aff (Millwood) 27, 1600-1611.
81. Kim, U.K., and Drayna, D. (2004). Genetics of individual differences in bitter taste perception: lessons from the PTC gene. Clin Genet 67, 275-280.
82. Knoppers, B.M., and Joly, Y. (2007). Our social genome? Trends Biotechnol 25, 284-288.
83. Kolker, E., Higdon, R., and Hogan, J.M. (2006). Protein identification and expression analysis using mass spectrometry. Trends Microbiol 14, 229-235.
84. Kuska, B. (1998). Beer, Bethesda, and biology: how "genomics" came into being. J Natl Cancer Inst 90, 93.
85. Landefeld, C.S., and Steinman, M.A. (2009). The Neurontin legacy-marketing through misinformation and manipulation. N Engl J Med 360, 103-106.
86. Lederberg, J., and McCray, A.T. (2001). "Ome sweet omics":-a genealogical treasury of words. Scientist 15, 2.
87. Lemmens, T., and Miller, P.B. (2006). Regulating the market in human research participants. PLoS Med 3, e330.
88. Lexchin, J. (2008). Doctors and industry funding of continuing medical education: guilty as charged. Israeli J Emergency Med 8(2), 23-25.
89. Llerena, A., Dorado, P., and Peñas-Lledó, E.M. (2009). Pharma-cogenetics of debrisoquine and its use as a marker for CYP2D6 hydroxylation capacity. Pharmacogenomics 10, 17-28.
90. Lunshof, J.E., Pirmohamed, M., and Gurwitz, D. (2006). Personalized medicine: decades away? Pharmacogenomics 7, 237- 241.
91. Lunshof, J. (2008). The new genomics: challenges for ethics. PhD Dissertation. Vrije Universiteit: Amsterdam, NL. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/1871/13070 [Accessed February 6, 2009].
92. Lunshof, J.E., Chadwick, R., Vorhaus, D.B., and Church, G.M. (2008). From genetic privacy to open consent. Nat Rev Genet 9, 406-411.
93. Mahlknecht, U., and Voelter-Mahlknecht, S. (2005). Pharma-cogenomics: questions and concerns. Curr Med Res Opin 21, 1041-1047.
94. Maienschein, J., and Smith, G. (2008). What difference does history of science make, anyway? Isis 99, 318-321.
95. Maienschein, J., Laubichler, M., and Loettgers, A. (2008). How can history of science matter to scientists? Isis 99, 341-349.
96. Mahgoub, A., Idle, J.R., Dring, L.G., Lancaster, R., and Smith, R. (1977). Polymorphic hydroxylation of debrisoquine in man. Lancet 2, 584-586.
97. Marmot, M.G. (2004). Evidence based policy or policy based evidence? BMJ 328, 906-907.
98. Masimirembwa, C.M., Johansson, I., Hasler, J.A., and Ingelman-Sundberg, M. (1993). Genetic polymorphism of cytochrome P450 CYP2D6 in Zimbabwean population. Pharmacogenetics 3, 275-280.
99. Masimirembwa, C., Persson, I., Bertilsson, L., Hasler, J., and In-gelman-Sundberg, M. (1996). A novel mutant variant of the CYP2D6 gene (CYP2D6*17) common in a black African population: association with diminished debrisoquine hydroxy-lase activity. Br J Clin Pharmacol 42, 713-719.
100. Master, Z., and Ozdemir, V. (2008). Selling translational research-is science a value-neutral autonomous enterprise? Am J Bioeth 8, 52-54.
101. McGuire, A., and Burke, W. (2008). An unwelcome side effect of direct-to-consumer personal genome testing: raiding the medical commons. JAMA 300, 2669-2671.
102. McKusick, V.A., and Ruddle, F.H. (1987). Toward a complete map of the human genome. Genomics 1, 103-106.
103. McNally, R., and Glasner, P. (2006). Survival of the gene? 21st century visions from genomics, proteomics and the new biology. In: New Genetics, New Social Formations. P. Glasner, P. Atkinson, and H. Greenslade, eds, (Routledge, London). pp. 253-278.
104. Merton, R.K. (1942a). Science and technology in a democratic order. J Leg Polit Sociol 1, 115-126.
105. Merton, R.K. (1942b). The normative structure of science. In The Sociology of Science. N.W. Storer, ed. (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL). pp. 267-278.
106. Millstone, E. (2000). Analysing biotechnology's traumas. New Genet Soc 19, 117-132.
107. Mintzes, B., Barer, M., Lexchin, J., and Bassett, K.L. (2005). Introduction of direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs in Canada: an opinion survey on regulatory policy. Res Social Adm Pharm 1, 310-330.
108. Montpetit, E., Rothmayr, C., and Varone, F., eds. (2006). The Politics of Biotechnology in North America and Europe: Policy Networks, Institutions and Internationalization. (Lexington Books, Lanham, MD).
109. Morin, K. (2009). Knowledge and attitudes of Canadian consumers and health care professionals regarding nutritional ge-nomics. OMICS 13 (in press).
110. Motulsky, A.G. (1957). Drug reactions, enzymes and biochemical genetics. JAMA 165, 835-837.
111. Motulsky, A.G. (2002). From pharmacogenetics and ecogenetics to pharmacogenomics. Med Secoli 14, 683-705.
112. Nakai, K., Tsuboi, J., Okabayashi, H., Fukuhiro, Y., Oka, T., and Habano, W., et al. (2007). Ethnic differences in the VKORC1 gene polymorphism and an association with warfarin dosage requirements in cardiovascular surgery patients. Pharma-cogenomics 8, 713-719.
113. Naylor, S., and Cavanagh, J. (2004). Status of systems biology- does it have a future? Biosilico 2, 171-174.
114. Naylor, S., Culbertson, A.W., and Valentine, S.J. (2008). Towards a systems level analysis of health and nutrition. Curr Opin Biotechnol 19, 100-109.
115. Nebert, D.W. (1999). Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics: why is this relevant to the clinical geneticist? Clin Genet 56, 247-258.
116. Nebert, D.W., Jorge-Nebert, L., and Vesell, E.S. (2003). Pharma-cogenomics and "individualized drug therapy": high expectations and disappointing achievements. Am J Pharmacoge-nomics 3, 361-370.
117. Nebert, D.W., Zhang, G., and Vesell, E.S. (2008). From human genetics and genomics to pharmacogenetics and pharma-cogenomics: past lessons, future directions. Drug Metab Rev 40, 187-224.
118. Nicholson, J.K. (2006). Reviewers peering from under a pile of "omics" data. Nature 440, 992.
119. Nicholson, J.K., and Lindon, J.C. (2008). Systems biology: metabonomics. Nature 455, 1054-1056.
120. Nightingale, P., and Martin, P. (2004). The myth of the biotech revolution. Trends Biotechnol 22, 564-569.
121. O'Farrell, P.H. (2008, Nov 10). The pre-omics era: the early days of two-dimensional gels. Proteomics [Epub ahead of print].
122. Owen, R.P., Altman, R.B., and Klein, T.E. (2008). PharmGKB and the International Warfarin Pharmacogenetics Consortium: the changing role for pharmacogenomic databases and single-drug pharmacogenetics. Hum Mutat 29, 456-460.
123. Ozdemir, V. (2007). What is theragnostics and how will it change drug development, medical innovation and commercialization? German Sepsis Society Annual Meeting-Symposium on "Theragnostics in Severe Infection." Weimar, Germany, September 3-7.
124. Ozdemir, V., and Godard, B. (2007). Evidence-based management of nutrigenomics expectations and ELSIs. Pharmacoge-nomics 8, 1051-1062.
125. Ozdemir, V., Kalow, W., Tothfalusi, L., Bertilsson, L., Endrenyi, L., and Graham, J.E. (2005). Multigenic control of drug response and regulatory decision-making in pharmaco genomics: the need for an upper-bound estimate of genetic contributions. Curr Pharmacogenomics Person Med 3, 53-71.
126. Ozdemir, V., Motulsky, A.G., Kolker, E., and Godard, B. (2009). Genome-environment interactions and prospective technology assessment: Evolution from pharmacogenomics to nu-trigenomics and ecogenomics. OMICS: A Journal of Integra-tive Biology 13(1).
127. Ozdemir, V., Williams-Jones, B., Glatt, S.J., Tsuang, M., Lohr, J.B., and Reist, C. (2006). Shifting emphasis from pharma-cogenomics to theragnostics. Nat Biotechnol 28, 942-946.
128. Ozdemir, V., Williams-Jones, B., Graham, J.E., Preskorn, S.H., Gripeos, D., Glatt, S.J., et al. (2007). Asymmetry in scientific method and limits to cross-disciplinary dialogue: towards a shared language and science policy in pharmacogenomics and human disease genetics. J Invest Med 55, 130-141.
129. Ozdemir, V., Dubé, M.P., Tardif, J.C., de Denus, S., Phillips, M., Stenne, R., et al. (2008). A survey of the personalized medicine landscape. Pharmacogenomics 9, 819-823.
130. Pamuk, O. (2005). Istanbul: Memories and the City (Paperback). (Vintage Books, Random House: London).
131. Pang, T. (2003). Impact of pharmacogenomics on neglected diseases of the developing world. Am J Pharmacogenomics 3, 393-398.
132. Perini, J., Struchiner, C., Silva-Assuncao, E., Santana, I., Rangel, F., Ojopi, E., et al. (2008). Pharmacogenetics of warfarin: development of a dosing algorithm for Brazilian patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 84, 722-728.
133. Pirmohamed, M. (2001). Pharmacogenetics and pharmacoge-nomics. Br J Clin Pharmacol 52, 345-347.
134. Pohlhaus, J.R., and Cook-Deegan, R.M. (2008). Genomics research: world survey of public funding. BMC Genomics 9, 472.
135. Poland, G.A., Ovsyannikova, I.G., and Jacobson, R.M. (2008). Personalized vaccines: the emerging field of vaccinomics. Expert Opin Biol Ther 8, 1659-1667.
136. Power, S. (2008). Chasing the Flame: Sergio Vieira de Mello and the Fight to Save the World (The Penguin Press: New York). pp. 1-622.
137. Prainsack, B., Reardon, J., Hindmarsh, R., Gottweis, H., Naue, U., and Lunshof, J.E. (2008). Personal genomes: Misdirected precaution. Nature 456(7218), 34-35.
138. Preece, M.A. (1996). The genetic contribution to stature. Horm Res 45, 56-58.
139. Rhodes, R., and Strain, J.J. (2004). Whistleblowing in academic medicine. J Med Ethics 30, 35-39.
140. Ries, N.M., and Caulfield, T. (2006). First pharmacogenomics, next nutrigenomics: Genohype or genohealthy? Jurimetrics J 46, 281-308.
141. Saltelli, A., and Funtowicz, S. (2004). The precautionary principle: implications for risk management strategies. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 17, 47-57.
142. Select Biosciences. (2008). The Inaugural AgriGenomics World Congress. September 29-30, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
143. Singh, J.A., and Daar, A.S. (2008). The 20-year African biotech plan. Nat Biotechnol 26, 272-274.
144. Smart, A., and Martin, P. (2006). The promise of pharmacoge-netics: assessing the prospects for disease and patient stratification. Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci 37, 583-601.
145. Smil, V. (2001). Millennium essay. Genius loci. The twentieth century was made in Budapest. Nature 409, 21.
146. Snyder, L.H. (1931). Inherited taste deficiency. Science 74, 151-152.
147. ST&HV Editors. (2009). Journals Under Threat: A Joint Response From History of Science, Technology & Medicine. Science, Technology & Human Values 34, 6-8.
148. Stevenson, C., and Cutcliffe, J. (2006). Problematizing special observation in psychiatry: Foucault, archaeology, genealogy, discourse and power/knowledge. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 13, 713-721.
149. Suarez-Kurtz, G., and Cascorbi, I. (2008). São Paulo Research Conference on Molecular Medicine and Pharmacogenetics, A Joint Meeting with the IUPHAR Sub-Committee on Pharma-cogenetics and the Brazilian Pharmacogenetics Network, São Paulo, Brazil, September 18-20, 2008. Curr Pharmacogenomics Personal Med 6, 234-238.
150. Tepper, B.J. (2008). Nutritional implications of genetic taste variation: the role of PROP sensitivity and other taste phenotypes. Annu Rev Nutr 28, 14.1-14.22.
151. Turner, E.H., Matthews, A.M., Linardatos, E., Tell, R.A., and Rosenthal, R. (2008). Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. N Engl J Med 358, 252-260.
152. UNESCO (Paris). (2000). World Conference on Science. "Science for the Twenty-first Century: A New Commitment" (Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge). Sci Technol Soc 5, 81-92.
153. van Ommen, B. (2004). Nutrigenomics: exploiting systems biology in the nutrition and health arenas. Nutrition 20, 4-8.
154. Vesell, E.S., and Page, J.G. (1968). Genetic control of drug levels in man: phenylbutazone. Science 159, 1479-1480.
155. Vogel, F. (1959). Moderne problem der humangenetik. Ergeb. Inn. Med. U. Kinderheilk, 12, 52-125.
156. Weber, W.W., and Smith, R.L. (2001). ASPET/AACC Confer- ence. New directions in pharmacogenetics and ecogenetics. Genetic defenses against environmental impacts: responses to infections, foods, and environmental toxicants. Drug Met Disposition 29, 467.
157. Weedon, M.N., and Frayling, T.M. (2008). Reaching new heights: insights into the genetics of human stature. Trends Genet 24, 595-603.
158. White, W.I. (1991). A new look at the role of urinalysis in the history of diagnostic medicine. Clin Chem 37, 119-125.
159. Wilke, R.A., Mareedu, R.K., and Moore, J.H. (2008). The pathway less traveled: moving from candidate genes to candidate pathways in the analysis of genome-wide data from large scale pharmacogenetic association studies. Curr Pharmacoge-nomics Personal Med 6, 150-159.
160. Williams, R.J. (1956). Biochemical individuality (John Wiley & Sons, New York).
161. Winkler, H. (1920). Verbreitung und Ursache der Parthenogenesis im Pflanzen-und Tierreiche (Verlag von Gustav Fischer, Jena).
162. Wood, A.J.J. (2006). A proposal for radical changes in the drug-approval process. N Engl J Med 355, 618-623.
163. Wooding, S. (2006). Phenylthiocarbamide: a 75-year adventure in genetics and natural selection. Genetics 172, 2015-2023.
164. Yoshiura, K., Kinoshita, A., Ishida, T., Ninokata, A., Ishikawa, T., Kaname, T., et al. (2006). A SNP in the ABCC11 gene is the determinant of human earwax type. Nat Genet 38, 324-330.
165. Zika, E., Gurwitz, D., and Ibarreta, D. (2006). Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics: State-of-the-art and Potential Socio-economic Impacts in the EU. EUR 22214 EN. ISBN: 92-79-01901-5.