Expectancy, value and psychological distance: A new look at goal gradients

Social Cognition

Volumn 26, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 515-533

  Liberman, Nira ^a   Förster, Jens ^b  

^a TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^b UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61649104197     PISSN: 0278016X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1521/soco.2008.26.5.515     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Atkinson, J.W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand.
2. Ainslie, G. (1975). Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin, 82, 463-96.
3. Ainslie, G., & Haslam, N (1992). Hyperbolic discounting. In G. Loewenstein & J. Elster (Eds.) Choice Over Time, New York: Russel Sage.
4. Bandura, A. (1989). Self regulation of motivation and action through internal standards and goal systems. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 19-85). Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
6. Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F. (1996). Self regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1-15.
7. Brown, J. S. (1948). Gradients of approach and avoidance responses and their relation to motivation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 41, 450-465.
8. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what and why" of goal pursuit: Human needs and the self determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
9. Edwards, W. (1951). Probability preference among bets with differing expected values. Psychological Bulletin, 51. 380-417.
10. Einhorn, H. J., & Hogarth, R. M. (1986). Judging probable cause. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 3-19.
11. Elster, J., & Loewenstein, G. (1992). Utility from Memory and Anticipation. In G. Loewenstein & J. Elster (Eds.), Choice Over Time (pp. 213-234). New York: Russel Sage.
12. Elster, J. (1979). Ulysses and the Sirens: Studies in rationality and irrationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
13. Eyal, T., Liberman, N., Trope, Y., & Walther, E. (2004). The pros and cons of temporally near and distant action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 781-795.
14. Fishbach, A., & Trope, Y. (2001). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 79, 493-506.
15. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1974). Attitudes toward objects as predictors of single and multiple behavioral criteria. Psychological Review, 81, 59-74.
16. Förster, J., Grant, H., Idson, L. C., & Higgins, E. T. (2001) Success/failure feedback, expectancies, and approach/avoidance motivation: How regulatory focus moderates classic relations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 253-260.
17. Förster, J., Higgins, E. T., & Idson, L. C. (1998). Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the "goal looms larger" effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1115-1131.
18. Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., & O'Donoghue (2003). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. In G. Loewenstein, D. Read, & R. Baumeister (Eds.), Time and Decision (pp. 13-86). New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
19. Gilovich, T., Kerr, M., & Medvec, V.H. (1993). Effect of temporal perspective on subjective confidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 552-560.
20. Gjesme, T. (1974). Goal distance in time and its effects on the relations between achievement motives and performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 8, 161-171.
21. Henderson, M., Fujita, K. F., Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2006). Transcending the "here": The effect of spatial distance on social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 845-856.
22. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
23. Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
24. Idson, L. C., Liberman, N., & Higgins, E. T., (2000). Distinguishing gains from nonlosses and losses from non-gains: A regulatory focus perspective on hedonic intensity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 252-274.
25. Keren, G., & Roelofsma, P. (1995). Immediacy and certainty in intertemporal choice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 63, 287-297.
26. Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
27. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (Ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
28. Liberman, N., Molden, D. M., Idson, L. C., & Higgins, E. T. (2001). Promotion and prevention focus on alternative hypotheses: A regulatory focus perspective on attributional functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 5-18.
29. Liberman N., & Trope, Y. (1998). The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: A test of temporal construal theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 5-18.
30. Liberman, N. & Trope, Y. (2003). Temporal construal theory of intertemporal judgment and decision. In: G. Loewenstein, D. Read, & R. Baumeister (Eds.), Time and decision (pp. 245-276). New York: Russel Sage Foundations.
31. Liberman, N., Trope, Y., & Stephan, E. (2007). Psychological distance. In E.T. Higgins & A. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social Psychology: Handbook of basic principles (Vol. 2, pp. 353-383). New York: Guilford.
32. Losco, J., & Epstein, S. (1977). Relative steepness of approach and avoidance gradients as a function of magnitude and valence of incentive. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 360-368.
33. Maas, A., Salvi, D., Arcuri, L., & Semin, G. (1989). Language use in intergroup contexts: The linguistic intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 981-993.
34. Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In J. McV Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 431-465). New York: Ronald Press.
35. Miller, N. E. (1959). Liberation of basic S-R concepts: Extension to conflict behavior, motivation and social learning. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 2). New York: McGraw-Hill.
36. Miller, N. E., & Kraeling, D. (1952). Displacement: Greater generalization of approach than avoidance in a generalized approach-avoidance conflict. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 217-221.
37. Miller, N. E., & Murray, E. J. (1952). Displacement and conflict: Learnable drive as a basis for the steeper gradient of avoidance than of approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 227-231.
38. Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 249-292). New York: Academic Press.
39. Mitchell, T. R. (1982). Expectancy-value models in organizational psychology. In N. T. Feather (Ed.), Expectations and actions: Expectancy-value models in psychology (pp. 293-312). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
40. Murray, E. J., & Berkun, M. M. (1955). Displacement as a function of conflict. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 51, 47-56.
41. O'Donoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (2002). Addiction and present biased preferences. Department of Economics, Institute for Business and Economic Research, UC Berkeley, Department of Economics, Working Paper Series: 1041, 2002.
42. Prelec, D., & Loewenstein, G. (1991). Decision making over time and under uncertainty: A common approach. Management Science, 37, 770-786.
43. Rachlin, H. (1995). Self-control: Beyond commitment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 109-159.
44. Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Kalyanaraman, S. (1999). Mixing virtue with vice: Combining the immediacy effect and the diversification heuristic. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 12, 257-273.
45. Rigby, W. K. (1954). Approach and avoidance gradients and conflict behavior in a predominantly temporal situation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 53, 63-67.
46. Ross, M., & Sicoly, F. (1979). Egocentric biases in availability and attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 322-336.
47. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80.
48. Sagristano, M. C., Trope, Y., & Liberman, N., (2002). Time-dependent gambling: Odds now, money later. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 364-376.
49. Savitsky, K., Medvec, V., Charlton, A. E., & Gilovich, T. (1998). What, me worry? Arousal, misattribution and the effect of temporal distance on confidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 529-536.
50. Schelling, T. (1984). Self command in practice, in policy and in a theory of rational choice. American Economic Review, 74(2), 1-11.
51. Sherman, S. (1980). On the self-erasing nature of errors of prediction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 211-221.
52. Smith, N. W. (1965). GSR measures of cigarette smokers' temporal approach and avoidance gradients. Psychological Record, 15, 261-268.
53. Thaler, R. H., & Shefrin, H. M. (1981). An economic theory of self-control. Journal of Political Economy, 89, 392-406.
54. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2000). Temporal construal and time-dependent changes in preference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 876-889.
55. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110, 403-421.
56. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley
57. Wakslak, S. J., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Alony, R. (2006). Seeing the forest when entry is unlikely: Probability and the mental representation of events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135, 641-653.
58. Weiner, B., Russell, D., & Lerman, D. (1979). The cognition-emotion process in achievement-related contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1211-1220.