Nitrification in drinking water systems

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 153-208

  Zhang, Yan ^a   Love, Nancy ^b   Edwards, Marc ^c  

^a DXV Water Technologies   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University   (United States)

Author keywords

AOB; Chloramines; Nitrification control; Nitrifying bacteria; Nitrosomonas; NOB; Water distribution systems

Indexed keywords

AOB; CHLORAMINES; NITRIFYING BACTERIA; NITROSOMONAS; NOB;

AMINES; BACTERIA; BACTERIOLOGY; DENITRIFICATION; NITRIFICATION; OXIDATION; WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS; WATER POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY; WATER SUPPLY;

POTABLE WATER;

CORROSION; DRINKING WATER; NITRIFICATION; NITROGEN CYCLE; SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION; WATER QUALITY;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 61349108772     PISSN: 10643389     EISSN: 15476537     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10643380701631739     Document Type: Review

References (217)

1. Aleem, M.I.H., and Alexander, M. (1960). Nutrition and physiology of Nitrobacter agilis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 8(2), 80-84.
2. Alleman, J.E., Keramida, V., and Panteakiser, L. (1987). Light-induced nitrosomonas inhibition. Water Research, 21(4), 499-501.
3. Alleman, J.E., and Preston, K. (2005). Behavior and physiology of nitrifying bacteria. Available at: http://bridge.ecn.purdue.edu/~alleman/w3- articles/ nitrifier-physiology/nitrifier-behavior.html (accessed January 2006).
4. ATSDR. (2005). Toxicity of chlorite and chlorine dioxide. Available at: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs160.html (accessed January 2006).
5. AWWARF. (2004). Occurrence Survey for Boron and Hexavalent Chromium. Project 2759 final report.
6. AWWARF and DVGW-TZW. (1996). Internal corrosion of water distribution systems. 2nd ed. Denver, Colo.: American Water Works Association Research Foundation, DVGW-Technologiezentrum Wasser.
7. Baribeau, H. (2006). Fundamentals and control of nitrification in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems. AWWA manual, M56. Denver, Colo.: American Water Works Association.
8. Bastidas, E., and Sánchez-Silva, M. (2006). Coupled reliability model of biodeterioration, chloride ingress and cracking for reinforced concrete structures. http://dspace.uniandes.edu.co:5050/dspace/bitstream/1992/906/1/ Balkema Emilio Bastidas.pdf (accessed January 2006).
9. Belser, L.W., and Schmidt, E.L. (1978). Serological diversity within a terrestrial ammonia-oxidizing population. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 36(4), 589-593.
10. Bock, E., Koops, H.P., Ahlers, B., and Harms, H. (1992). Oxidation of inorganic nitrogen compounds as energy source. In The prokaryotes. ed. A. T. Balows, H.G. Trüper, M. Dworkin, W. Harder, and K. H. Schleifer. New York: Springer-Verlag.
11. Bodelier, P.L.E., and Laanbroek, H.J. (1997). Oxygen uptake kinetics of Pseudomonas chlororaphis grown in glucose- or glutamate-limited continuous cultures. Archives of Microbiology, 167(6), 392-395.
12. Bollmann, A., Bar-Gilissen, M.J., and Laanbroek, H.J. (2002). Growth at low ammonium concentrations and starvation response as potential factors involved in niche differentiation among ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(10), 4751-4757.
13. Bollmann, A., Schmidt, I., Saunders, A.M., and Nicolaisen, M.H. (2005). Influence of starvation on potential ammonia-oxidizing activity and amoA mRNA levels of Nitrosospira briensis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(3), 1276-1282.
14. Bott, C. (2005). Evaluation of zinc inhibition of nitrification and BNR phases III: Final report. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/ dclead/ Final Zinc Arlington WPCP Study VMI 9-20-05.pdf (accessed July 25, 2007).
15. Braam, F., and Klapwijk, A. (1981). Effect of copper on nitrification in activated-sludge. Water Research, 15(9), 1093-1098.
16. Burrell, P.C., Keller, J., and Blackall, L.L. (1998). Microbiology of a nitrite-oxidizing bioreactor. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(5), 1878-1883.
17. Camper, A.K., Brastrup, K., Sandvig, A., Clement, J., Spencer, C., and Capuzzi, A.J. (2003). Effect of distribution system materials on bacterial regrowth. Journal American Water Works Association, 95(7), 107-121.
18. Chain, P., Lamerdin, J., Larimer, F., Regala, W., Lao, V., Land, M., Hauser, L., Hooper, A., Klotz, M., Norton, J., Sayavedra-Soto, L., Arciero, D., Hommes, N., Whittaker, M., and Arp, D. (2003). Complete genome sequence of the ammonia-oxidizing bacterium and obligate chemolithoautotroph Nitrosomonas europaea. Journal of Bacteriology, 185(9), 2759-2773.
19. Chakrabarti, T., and Jones, P.H. (1983). Effect of molybdenum and selenium addition on the denitrification of wastewater. Water Research, 17(8), 931-936.
20. Characklis, W.G., and Gujer, W. (1979). Temperature dependency of microbial reactions. In Kinetics of Wastewater Treatments. S. H. Jenkins, ed., 111-130. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
21. Charley, R.D., Hooper, D.G., and Lee, A.G. (1980). Nitrification kinetics in activated sludge at various temperatures and dissolved oxygen concentrations. Water Research, 14, 1387-1396.
22. Clark, C., and Schmidt, E.L. (1966). Effect of mixed culture on Nitrosomonas europaea simulated by uptake and utilization of pyruvate. Journal of Bacteriology, 91(1), 367-373.
23. Clark, C., and Schmidt, E.L. (1967). Growth response of Nitrosomonas europaea to amino acids. Journal of Bacteriology, 93(4), 1302-1308.
24. th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association; American Water Works Association and Water Environment Federation.
25. Coskuner, G., and Curtis, T.P. (2002). In situ characterization of nitrifiers in an activated sludge plant: Detection of Nitrobacter spp. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 93(3), 431-473.
26. Cunliffe, D.A. (1991). Bacterial nitrification in chloraminated water-supplies. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57(11), 3399-3402.
27. Daims, H., Maixner, F., Lucker, S., Stoecker, K., Hace, K., and Wagner, M. (2006). Ecophysiology and niche differentiation of nitrospira-like bacteria: The key nitrite oxidizers in wastewater treatment plants. Water Science and Technology, 54(1), 21-27.
28. deCantanzaro, J.B., and Hutchinson, T.C. (1985). Effects of nickel addition on nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, and nitrogen leaching in some boreal forest soils. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 24, 153-164.
29. Disalvo, R.M., and Sherrard, J.H. (1980). The stimulation of nitrification at low nickel concentrations. Industrial Wastewater Treatment-Nitrification, 175-182.
30. Douglas, I., Guthmann, J., Muylwyk, Q., and Snoeyink, V. (2004). Corrosion control in the city of Ottawa - comparison of alternatives and case study for lead reduction in drinking water. In Eleventh Canadian National Conference and Second Policy Forum on Drinking Water.
31. Edwards, M., and Dudi, A. (2004). Role of chlorine and chloramine in corrosion of lead-bearing plumbing materials. Journal American Water Works Association, 96(10), 69-81.
32. Edwards, M., Hidmi, L., and Gladwell, D. (2002). Phosphate inhibition of soluble copper corrosion by-product release. Corrosion Science, 44(5), 1057-1071.
33. Edwards, M., Marshall, B., Zhang, Y., Abbott, S., and Strickhouser, A. (2005). Unintended consequences of chloramine hit home. Quebec City, Canada: AWWA WQTC.
34. Ehrich, S., Behrens, D., Lebedeva, E., Ludwig, W., and Bock, E. (1995). A new obligately chemolithoautotrophic, nitrite-oxidizing bacterium, Nitrospiramoscoviensis sp. nov. and its phylogenetic relationship. Archives of Microbiology, 164(1), 16-23.
35. Eichler, S., Christen, R., et al. (2006). Composition and dynamics of bacterial communities of a drinking water supply system as assessed by RNA- and DNA-based 16S rRNA gene fingerprinting. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72(3), 1858-1872.
36. Engel, M.S., and Alexander, M. (1958). Growth and autotrophic metabolism of Nitrosomonas europaea. Journal of Bacteriology, 76, 217-222.
37. Ensign, S.A., Hyman, M.R., and Arp, D.J. (1993). In vitro activation of ammonia monooxygenase from Nitrosomonas europaea by copper. Journal of Bacteriology, 175(7), 1971-1980.
38. Fairey, J.L., Katz, L.E., and Speitel, G.E. (2004). Monochloramine destruction in GAC beds. AWWA WQTC, November 2004, San Antonio, Texas.
39. Feben, D. (1935). Nitrifying bacteria in water supplies. Journal American Water Works Association, 27(4), 439-447.
40. Federal-Register. (2006). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ fedrgstr/EPA-WATER/2006/January/Day-04/w03/htm (accessed February 8, 2009).
41. Ferguson, B.A., DiGiano, F.A., and Chandran, K. (2005). Impact of temporary switches from monochloramine to free chlorine on water quality in distribution systems. AWWA annual conference, San Francisco, Calif.
42. Ferguson, S.J. (1998). Nitrogen cycle enzymology. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 2(2), 182-193.
43. Finstein, M.S., and Delwiche, C.C. (1965). Molybdenum as a micronutrient for nitrobacter. Journal of Bacteriology, 89(1), 123-128.
44. Fleming, K.K., Harrington, G.W., and Noguera, D.R. (2005). Nitrification potential curves: A new strategy for nitrification prevention. Journal American Water Works Association, 97(8), 90-99.
45. Fleming, K.K., Harrington, G.W., and Noguera, D.R. (2008). Using nitrification potential curves to evaluate full-scale drinking water distribution systems. Journal American Water Works Association, 100(10), 92-103.
46. Focht, D.D., and Verstraete, W. (1977). Biochemical ecology of nitrification and denitrification. In Advances in Microbial Ecology. ed. M. Alexander, 135-214. New York: Plenum Press.
47. Fransolet, G., Depelchin, A., Villers, G., Goossens, R., and Masschelein, W.J. (1988). The role of bicarbonate in bacterial-growth in oligotrophic waters. Journal American Water Works Association, 80(11), 57-61.
48. Furumai, H., and Rittmann, B.E. (1992). Advanced modeling of mixed populations of heterotrophs and nitrifiers considering the formation and exchange of soluble microbial products. Water Science and Technology, 26(3-4), 493-502.
49. Furumai, H., and Rittmann, B.E. (1994). Evaluation of multiple-species biofilm and floc processes using a simplified aggregate model. Water Science and Technology, 29(10-11), 439-446.
50. Garret, J.H. (1891). The action of water on lead. London, England: H.K. Lewis.
51. Gates, J., and Lavinder, S. (1997). Action plan for improving chloramine residuals and minimizing the occurrence of nitrification in the Florida Keys aqueduct authority's distribution system. In AWWA Water Quality and Technology Conference, November 1992, Denver, Colorado.
52. Geets, J., Boon, N., and Verstraete, W. (2006). Strategies of aerobic ammoniaoxidizing bacteria for coping with nutrient and oxygen fluctuations. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 58(1), 1-13.
53. Gibbs, W.M. (1920). The isolation and study of nitrifying bacteria. Soil Science, 8, 427.
54. Gieseke, A., Bjerrum, L., Wagner, M., and Amann, R. (2003). Structure and activity of multiple nitrifying bacterial populations co-existing in a biofilm. Environmental Microbiology, 5(5), 355-369.
55. Gieseke, A., Nielsen, J.L., Amann, R., Nielsen, P.H., and de Beer, D. (2005). In situ substrate conversion and assimilation by nitrifying bacteria in a model biofilm. Environmental Microbiology, 7(9), 1392-1404.
56. Gieseke, A., Purkhold, U., Wagner, M., Amann, R., and Schramm, A. (2001). Community structure and activity dynamics of nitrifying bacteria in a phosphate-removing biofilm. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67(3), 1351-1362.
57. Grady, C.P.L., Daigger, G.T., and Lim, H.C. (1999). Biological wastewater treatment. 2nd ed. Basel, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
58. 3 concentrations near Km- effects of pH and temperature. Water Research, 28(12), 2561-2566.
59. Grunditz, C., and Dalhammar, G. (2001). Development of nitrification inhibition assays using pure cultures of Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Water Research, 35(2), 433-440.
60. Guo, Q., Toomuluri, P.J., and Eckert, J., J.O. (1998). Leachability of regulated metals from cement-mortar linings. Journal American Water Works Association, 90(3), 62-73.
61. Guo, X.W., Chu, K.G., and Qiao, L. (2002). Relativity between corrosion-induced stress and stress corrosion cracking of brass in an ammonia solution. Journal of University of Science and Technology Beijing, 9(6), 431.
62. Harms, L.L., and Owen, C.A. (2004). Keys for controlling nitrification. In AWWA WQTC, November 2004, San Antonio, Texas.
63. Harper, S.C., Manoharan, R., Mavinic, D.S., and Randall, C.W. (1996). Chromium and nickel toxicity during the biotreatment of high ammonia landfill leachate. Water Environment Research, 68(1), 19-24.
64. Harrington, G.W. (2002). Ammonia release from chloramine decay: Implications for the prevention and control of nitrification in distribution systems. Denver, Colo.: AWWA Research Foundation and AWWA.
65. Harrington, G.W., Noguera, D.R., Kandou, A.I., and Vanhoven, D.J. (2002). Pilotscale evaluation of nitrification control strategies. Journal American Water Works Association, 94(11), 78-89.
66. Hockenbury, M.R., Daigger, G.T., and Grady, C.P.L. (1977). Factors affecting nitrification. Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, 103(1), 9-19.
67. Hommes, N.G., Sayavedra-Soto, L.A., and Arp, D.J. (2003). Chemolithoorganotrophic growth of Nitrosomonas europaea on fructose. Journal of Bacteriology, 185, 6809-6814.
68. Hooper, A.B., and Terry, K.R. (1974). Photoinactivation of ammonia oxidation in Nitrosomonas. Journal of Bacteriology, 119, 899-906.
69. Hovanec, T.A., Taylor, L.T., Blakis, A., and Delong, E.F. (1998). Nitrospira-like bacteria associated with nitrite oxidation in freshwater aquaria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(1), 258-264.
70. Hulbert, R. (1933). Ammonia-chlorine treatment yields nitrite in effluent. Engrg. News-Record, September 14.
71. Hynes, R.K., and Knowles, R. (1983). Inhibition of chemoautotrophic nitrification by sodium-chlorate and sodium-chlorite-a reexamination. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 45(4), 1178-1182.
72. Ibrahim, A.M. (1989). Heavy metal inhibition of resting nitrifying bacteria. 43rd Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference Proceedings, West Lafayette, Indiana, 309-311.
73. Ike, N.R., Wolfe, R.L., and Means, E.G. (1988). Nitrifying bacteria in a chloraminated drinking-water system. Water Science and Technology, 20(11-12), 441-444.
74. Jansson, S.L. (1958). Tracer studies on nitrogen transformations in soil with special attention to mineralization-immobilization relationships. Kungl. Lantbrukshögskolans Annaler, 14, 101-361.
75. Jun, B.H., Tanji, Y., and Unno, H. (2000). Stimulating accumulation of nitrifying bacteria in porous carrier by addition of inorganic carbon in a continuousflow fluidized bed wastewater treatment reactor. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 89(4), 334-339.
76. Juretschko, S., Loy, A., Lehner, A., and Wagner, M. (2002). The microbial community composition of a nitrifying-denitrifying activated sludge from an industrial sewage treatment plant analyzed by the full-cycle rRNA approach. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 25, 84-99.
77. Kaltwasser, H. (1976). Destruction of concrete by nitrification. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 3(3), 185-192.
78. Karim, M.R., and LeChevallier, W.R. (2006). Alternative treatments for nitrification control in chloraminating utilities. In AWWA Annual Conference, June 26, San Antonio, Texas.
79. Keen, G.A., and Prosser, J.I. (1987). Steady-state and transient growth of autotrophic nitrifying bacteria. Archives of Microbiology, 147(1), 73-79.
80. Killham, K. (1986). Heterotrophic nitrification. In Nitrification, ed. J. I. Prosser. Washington D.C.: IRL Press.
81. Kindaichi, T., Ito, T., and Okabe, S. (2004). Ecophysiological interaction between nitrifying bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria in autotrophic nitrifying biofilms as determined by microautoradiography- fluorescence in situ hybridization. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(3), 1641-1650.
82. Kirmeyer, G.J., Foust, G.W., Pierson, G.L., Simmler, J.J., and LeChevallier, M.W. (1993). Optimizing chloramine treatment. Denver, Colo.: AWWARF and AWWA.
83. Kirmeyer, G.J., et al. (1995). Nitrification occurrence and control in chloraminated water systems. Denver, Colo.: AWWARF and AWWA.
84. Knowles, G., Downing, A.L., and Barret, M.J. (1965). Determination of kinetic constants for nitrifying bacteria in mixed culture with the aid of an electronic computer. Journal of General Microbiology, 38, 263-276.
85. Könneke, M., Bernhard, A.E., de la Torre, J.R., Walker, C.B., Waterbury, J.B., and Stahl, D.A. (2005). Isolation of an autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing marine archaeon. Nature, 437, 543-546.
86. Koops, H.P., and Pommerening-Roser, A. (2001). Distribution and ecophysiology of the nitrifying bacteria emphasizing cultured species. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 37(1), 1-9.
87. Kors, L. J., Moorman, J. H. N., Wind, A. P. M., and van der Hoek, J. P. (1998). Nitrification and low temperature in a raw water reservoir and rapid sand filters. Water Science & Technology, 37(2), 169-.
88. Kowalchuk, G.A., and Stephen, J.R. (2001). Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria: A model for molecular microbial ecology. Annual Review of Microbiology, 55, 485-529.
89. Krummel, A., and Harms, H. (1982). Effect of organic matter on growth and cell yield of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Archives of Microbiology, 133(1), 50-54.
90. Larson, T.E. (1939). Bacteria, corrosion and red water. Journal American Water Works Association, 31, 1186-1196.
91. Larson, T.E., King, R.M., and Henley, L. (1956). Corrosion of brass by chloramine. Journal American Water Works Association, January, 84-88.
92. Laudelot, H., and Tichelen, L.V. (1960). Kinetics of the nitrite oxidation by Nitrobacter winogrdski. Journal of Bacteriology, 79, 392-442.
93. Lee, Y.W., Ong, S.K., and Sato, C. (1997). Effects of heavy metals on nitrifying bacteria. Water Science and Technology, 36(12), 69-74.
94. LePuil, M., Randall, A.A., and Taylor, J.S. (2003). Final report: Biofilm measurements in the Pinellas County drinking water distribution system. University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
95. Leu, H.G., Lee, C.D., Ouyang, C.F., and Tseng, H.T. (1998). Effects of organic matter on the conversion rates of nitrogenous compounds in a channel reactor under various flow conditions. Water Research, 32(3), 891-899.
96. Lewis, R.F., and Pramer, D. (1958). Isolation of Nitrosomonas in pure culture. Journal of Bacteriology, 76, 524-528.
97. Lieu, N.I., Wolfe, R.L., and Means, E.G. (1993). Optimizing chloramine disinfection for the control of nitrification. Journal American Water Works Association, 85(2), 84-90.
98. Lipponen, M.T.T., Suutari, M.H., and Martikainen, P.J. (2002). Occurrence of nitrifying bacteria and nitrification in finnish drinking water distribution systems. Water Research, 36(17), 4319-4329.
99. Liu, S.B., Taylor, J.S., Randall, A.A., and Dietz, J.D. (2005). Nitrification modeling in chloraminated distribution systems. Journal American Water Works Association, 97(10), 98-108.
100. Loveless, J.E., and Painter, H.A. (1968). The influence of metal ion concentrations and pH value on the growth of a Nitrosomonas strain isolated from activated sludge. Journal of General Microbiology, 52(1).
101. Lula, R.A. (1986). Stainless steel, revised. From An introduction to stainless steel, ed. J. G. Parr and A. Hanson. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals.
102. Lydmark, P., Lind, M., Sörensson, F., and Hermansson, M. (2006). Vertical distribution of nitrifying populations in bacterial biofilms from a full-scale nitrifying trickling filter. Environmental Microbiology, 8(11), 2036-2049.
103. Madigan, M.J., Martinko, J.M., and Parker, J. (2000). Nutrition and metabolism. In Brock biology of microorganisms. Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
104. Maixner, F., Noguera, D.R., Anneser, B., Stoecker, K., Wegl, G., Wagner, M., and Daims, H. (2006). Nitrite concentration influences the population structure of Nitrospira-like bacteria. Environmental Microbiology, 8(8), 1487-1495.
105. Margerum, D.W., Schurter, L.M., Hobson, J., and Moore, E.E. (1994). Water chlorination chemistry - nonmetal redox kinetics of chloramine and nitrite ion. Environmental Science and Technology, 28(2), 331-337.
106. Marshall, B., and Edwards, M. (2004). Evaluation of lead corrosion control strategies in Maui water: Final report. Available at: http://mauiwater.org/mauipb2004.pdf (accessed May 2005).
107. Martin, G., and Richard, Y. (1982). Elements of the inhibition of nitrifying bacteria. Water Science and Technology, 14(6-7), 781-794.
108. Martiny, H., and Koops, H.-P. (1982). Incorporation of organic compounds into cell protein by lithotrophic, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 48, 327-336.
109. McGuire, M.J., Lieu, N.I., and Pearthree, M.S. (1999). Using chlorite ion to control nitrification. Journal American Water Works Association, 91(10), 52-61.
110. McIntyre, P., and Mercer, A.D. (1993). Corrosion and related aspects of materials for potable water supplies, p. 70, Institute of Materials, London, UK.
111. McNeill, L.S., and Edwards, M. (2001). Iron pipe corrosion in distribution systems. Journal of American Water Works Association, 93(7), 88-100.
112. McNeill, L.S., and Edwards, M. (2002). Phosphate inhibitor use at U.S. utilities. Journal of American Water Works Association, 94(7), 57-63.
113. Meiklejohn, J. (1950). The isolation of Nitrosomonas europaea in pure culture. The Journal of General Microbiology, 4, 185-191.
114. Meincke, M., Krieg, E., and Bock, E. (1989). Nitrosovibrio spp., the dominant ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in building sandstone. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 55(8), 2108-2110.
115. Miettinen, I.T., Vartiainen, T., and Martikainen, P.J. (1997). Phosphorus and bacterial growth in drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63(8), 3242-3245.
116. Morton, S.C., Glindemann, D., and Edwards, M. (2003). Phosphates, phosphites, and phosphides in environmental samples. Environmental Science & Technology, 37(6), 1169-.
117. Morton, S.C., Zhang, Y., and Edwards, M.A. (2005). Implications of nutrient release from iron metal for microbial regrowth in water distribution systems. Water Research, 39(13), 2883-2892.
118. Murphy, B., O'Connor, J.T., and O'Connor, T.L. (1997). Willmar, Minnesota, battles copper corrosion, part 1. Public Works, October, 65-68.
119. Neden, D.G., Jones, R.J., Smith, J.R., Kirmeyer, G.J., and Foust, G.W. (1992). Comparing chlorination and chloromination for controlling bacterial regrowth. Journal of American Water Works Association, 84(7), 80-88.
120. Neufeld, R., Greenfield, J., and Rieder, B. (1986). Temperature, cyanide and phenolic nitrification inhibition. Water Research, 20(5), 633-642.
121. Neufeld, R.D., Hill, A.J., and Greenfield, J. (1980). Factors influencing biological nitrification of steel industry wastewaters. AlChe Symposium Series, 77(209), 151-158.
122. Nguyen, C., and Edwards, M. (2005). Chemistry of rapid chloramine decay in water contacting copper plumbing. In: AWWA WQTC, Quebec City, Canada, November 2005.
123. Norton, C.D., and LeChevallier, M.W. (1997). Chloramination: Its effect on distribution system water quality. Journal of American Water Works Association, 89(7), 66-77.
124. Nowlin, M., Summers, R.S., and Work, L. (2001). Chlorine and chloramine decay in drinking water: The impact of temperature. University of Colorado, Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering. http://ceae.colorado.edu/environ/JoAnn/REU/2001/Melanie/ (accessed December 30, 2005).
125. Odell, L.H., Kirmeyer, G.J., Wilczak, A., Jacangelo, J.G., Marcinko, J.P., and Wolfe, R.L. (1996). Controlling nitrification in chloraminated systems. Journal of American Water Works Association, 88(7), 86-98.
126. Ohashi, A., deSilva, D.G.V., Mobarry, B., Manem, J.A., Stahl, D.A., and Rittmann, B.E. (1995). Influence of substrate C/N ratio on the structure of multi-species biofilms consisting of nitrifiers and heterotrophs. Water Science and Technology, 32(8), 75-84.
127. Oldenburg, P.S., Regan, J.M., Harrington, G.W., and Noguera, D.R. (2002). Kinetics of Nitrosomonas europaea inactivation by chloramine. Journal of American Water Works Association, 94(10), 100-110.
128. Painter, H.A. (1977). Microbial transformations of inorganic nitrogen. Progress in Water Technology, 8(4/5).
129. Pan, P., and Umbreit, W.W. (1972a). Growth of obligate autotrophic bacteria on glucose in a continuous flow-through apparatus. Journal of Bacteriology, 109, 1149-1155.
130. Pan, P., and Umbreit, W.W. (1972b). Growth of mixed cultures of autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 18, 153-156.
131. Park, H.D., Wells, G.F., Bae, H., Criddle, C.S., and Francis, C.A. (2006). Occurrence of ammonia-oxidizing archaea in wastewater treatment plant bioreactors. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72, 5643-5647.
132. Passantino, L., et al. (2003). Pipe-loop studies evaluating nitrification and disinfection by-product formation following the conversion to chloramines. American Water Works Association Annual Conference, June 2003, Anaheim, California.
133. Peavy, H.S., Rowe, D.R., and Tchobanoglous, G. (1985). Environmental engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
134. Powell, R. (2004). Implementation of chloramination by a Florida utility: The good, the bad, and the ugly. In AWWA WQTC Conferences, November 2004, San Antonio, Texas.
135. Prakasam, T.B.S., and Loehr, R.C. (1972). Microbial nitrification and denitrification in concentrated wastes. Water Research, 6(7), 859-869.
136. Prosser, J.I. (1986). Nitrification. Society for General Microbiology. Oxford, Washington DC: IRL Press.
137. Pugh, E.N., Montague, W.G., and Westwood., A.R.C. (1966). Stress corrosion cracking of copper. Corrosion Science, 6, 345-346.
138. Purkhold, U., Wagner, M., Timmermann, G., Pommerening-Röser, A., and Koops, H.-P. (2003). 16S rRNA and amoA-based phylogeny of 12 novel betaproteobacterial ammonina-oxidizing isolates: Extension of the dataset and proposal of a new lineage within the Nitrosomonads. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 53(5), 1485-1494.
139. Qin, Y.-Y., Li, D.-T., and Yang, H. (2007). Investigation of total bacterial andammonia-oxidizing bacterial community composition in a full-scale aerated submerged biofilm reactor for drinking water pretreatment in China. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 268, 126-134.
140. Reeves, M.W., Pine, L., Hutner, S.H., George, J.R., and Harrell, W.K. (1981). Metal requirements of Legionella pneumophila. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 13(4), 695.
141. Regan, J. (2001). Microbial ecology of nitrification in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin-Madison.
142. Regan, J.M., Cho, A.-Y., Kim, S., and Smith, C.D. (2007). Monitoring ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in chloraminated distribution systems. Denver, Colo.: AWWA Research Foundation and AWWA.
143. Regan, J.M., Harrington, G.W., Baribeau, H., De Leon, R., and Noguera, D.R. (2003). Diversity of nitrifying bacteria in full-scale chloraminated distribution systems. Water Research, 37(1), 197-205.
144. Regan, J.M., Harrington, G.W., and Noguera, D.R. (2002). Ammonia- and nitriteoxidizing bacterial communities in a pilot-scale chloraminated drinking water distribution system. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(1), 73-81.
145. Richardson, D.J., and Watmough, N.J. (1999). Inorganic nitrogen metabolism in bacteria. Chemical Biology, 3, 207-219.
146. Rittmann, B.E., and Manem, J.A. (1992). Development and experimental evaluation of a steady-state, multispecies biofilm model. Biotechnolology and Bioengineering, 39(9), 914-922.
147. Rittmann, B.E., Regan, J.M., and Stahl, D.A. (1994). Nitrification as a source of soluble organic substrate in biological treatment. Water Science and Technology, 30(6), 1-8.
148. Rittmann, B.E., and Soneyink, V.L. (1984). Achieving biologically stable dinking water. Journal of American Water Works Association, October, 106-114.
149. Rollinger, Y., and Dott, W. (1987). Survival of selected bacterial species in sterilized activated carbon filters and biological activated carbon filters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 53(4), 777-781.
150. Rosswall, T. (1982). Microbiological regulation of the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle. Plant and Soil, 67, 15-34.
151. Rozenfeld, I.L. (1981). Corrosion inhibitors. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
152. Sakairi, M.A.C., Yasuda, K., and Matsummura, M. (1996). Nitrogen removal in sea water using nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria immobilized in porous cellulose carrier. Water Science & Technology, 34(7-8), 267-274.
153. Sang, J.Q., Zhang, X.H., Zhou, H.H., and Wang, Z.S. (2003). Limiting phosphorus to control bio-stability in drinking water. Advances in Water Science (China), 14(6), 720-.
154. Sathasivan, A., and Ohgaki, S. (1999). Application of new bacterial regrowth potential method for water distribution system-a clear evidence of phosphorus limitation. Water Research, 33(1), 137-.
155. Sato, C., Leung, S.W., and Schnoor, J.L. (1988). Toxic response of Nitrosomonas europaea to copper in inorganic medium and wastewater. Water Research, 22(9), 1117-1127.
156. Sato, C., Schnoor, J.L., and McDonald, D.B. (1986). Characterization of effects of copper, cadmium and nickel on the growth of Nitrosomonas europaea.. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 5, 403-416.
157. Sawyer, C.N., and Bradney, L. (1946). Modernization of the BOD test for determining the efficiency of sewage treatment processes. Science of Sewage Works, 18, 1113-.
158. Schock, M.R., Lytle, D.A., and Clement, J.A. (1995). Effect of pH, DIC, orthophosphate, and sulfate on drinking water cuprosolvency. ONRMRL. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
159. Seidel, C.J., Mcguire, M.J., Summers, S., and Via, S. (2005). Have utilities switched to chloramines? Journal of American Water Works Association, 97(10), 87-97.
160. Shammas, N.K. (1971). Optimization of biological nitrification. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
161. Sharma, B., and Ahlert, R.C. (1977). Nitrification and nitrogen removal. Water Research, 11, 897-925.
162. Shkelqim, C., and Malcolm, E.S. (2002). Critical concentrations of copper, nickel, lead, and cadmium in soils based on nitrification. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, V33(1), 19-30.
163. Skadsen, J. (1993). Nitrification in a distribution system. Journal of American Water Works Association, 7, 95-103.
164. Skadsen, J. (2002). Effectiveness of high pH in controlling nitrification. Journal of American Water Works Association, 94(7), 73-83.
165. Skinner, F. A., and Walker, N. (1961). Growth of Nitrosomonas europaea in batch and continuous culture. Arch. Fur. Mikrobiologie, 38, 339-.
166. Song, D.J., Sheikholeslami, A., Hoover, L.L., Turner, K.A., Lai, H.H., and Wilczak, A. (1999). Improvement of chloramine stability through pH control, TOC reduction and blending at EBMUD, California. In AWWA Annual Conference, June 1999, Chicago, Illinois.
167. Stein, L.Y., and Arp, D. (1998). Ammonium limitation results in the loss of ammoniaoxidizing activity in Nitrosomonas europaea. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(4), 1514-1521.
168. Stenstrom, M.K., and Song, S.S. (1991). Effects of oxygen transport limitation on nitrification in the activated sludge process. Research Journal WPCF, 63(3), 208-219.
169. Steward, M.H., and Lieu, N.I. (1997). Nitrification in chloraminated drinking water and its association with biofilms. AWWA WQTC, November 1997, Salt Lake City, Utah.
170. Sundberg, R., Holm, R., Hertzman, S., Hutchinson, B., and Lindh-Ulmgren., E. (2003). Dezincification (DA) and intergranular corrosion (IGA) of brass-influence of composition and heat treatment. Metall., 57, 721-731.
171. Suzuki, I., Kwok, S.C., and Dular, U. (1974). Ammonia or ammonium ion as substrate for oxidation by Nitrosomonas europaea cells and extracts. Journal of Bacteriology, 120(1), 556-.
172. Szwerinski, H., Gaiser, S., and Bardtke, D. (1985). Immunofluorescence for the quantitative determination of nitrifying bacteria: Interference of the test in biofilm reactors. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 21, 125-128.
173. Tang, N.H. (1992). OSAR parameters for toxicity of organic chemicals to Nitrobacter. Journal of Environmental Engineering-ASCE, 118(1).
174. Tarre, S., and Green, M. (2004). High rate nitrification at low pH in suspended- and attached-biomass reactors. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(11), 6481-6487.
175. Tokuno, S.-I. (1997). Granular activated carbon filtration and nitrification. Water Engineering & Management, 144(2), 22-25.
176. Tokutomi, T., Kiyokawa, T., Shibayama, C., Harada, H., and Ohashi, A. (2006). Effect of inorganic carbon on nitrite accumulation in an aerobic granule reactor. Water Science & Technology, 53(12), 285-294.
177. Tomas, P.M. (1987). Formation and decay of monochloramine in South Australia water supply systems. In 12th Federal Convention Australia Water and Wastewater Association, Adelaide, Australia.
178. Tomlinson, T.G., Boon, A.G., and Trotman, N.A. (1966). Inhibition of nitrification in the activated sludge process of sewage disposal. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 29(2), 266-.
179. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2001a). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 41. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
180. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2001b). Total Coliform Rule. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/disinfection/tcr/regulation.html (accessed July 7, 2007).
181. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2003). Consideration of other regulatory revisions for chemical contaminants in support of the six-year review of the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
182. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). Nitrification. http://www.epa.gov/ safewater/tcr/pdf/nitrification.pdf (accessed December 21, 2005).
183. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2006). EPA Review of DC WASA Lead Data. http://www.epa.gov/dclead/ (accessed April 25, 2006).
184. Vahala, R. (2002). Two step granular activated carbon filtration in drinking water treatment. Helsinki: Helsinki University of Technology.
185. Vahala, R., and Laukkanen, R. (1998). Nitrification in GAC-filtered,
186. Valentine, R.L. (1984). Disappearance of monochloramine in the presence of nitrite. In Water chlorination chemistry, environmental impact and health effects. ed. R. L. Jolley, R. J. Bull, W. P. Davis, S. Katz, J. Morris H. Roberts, and V. A. Jacobs. Lewis Publishers, Inc.
187. Van der Aa, L.T.J., Kors, L.J., Wind, A.P.M., Hofman, J.A.M.H., and Rietveld, L.C. (2002). Nitrification in rapid sand filter: Phosphate limitation at low temperatures. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 2(1), 37-46.
188. Van Droogenbroeck, R., and Laudelout, H. (1967). Phosphate requirement of the nitrifying bacteria. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 33, 287-296.
189. Verhagen, F.J.M., and Laanbroek, H.J. (1991). Competition for ammonium between nitrifying and heterotrophic bacteria in dual energy-limited chemostats. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57(11), 3255-3263.
190. Verstraete, W., and Alexander, M. (1973). Heterotrophic nitrification in samples of natural ecosystems. Environmental Science & Technology, 7(1), 39-42.
191. Verstraete, W., and Alexander, M. (1986). Heterotrophic nitrification. In Nitrification. ed. J. I. Prosser. Washington, DC: IRL Press.
192. Volsch, A., Nader, W.F., Geiss, H.K., Nebe, G., and Birr, C. (1990). Detection and analysis of two serotypes of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in sewage plants by flow cytometry. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 56(8), 2430-2435.
193. Waara, K.O., and Wilander, A. (1985). Effects of heavy metals on nitrification studied with chemostat technique. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol., 22, 2378-.
194. Wagner, M., Noguera, D.R., Juretschko, S., Rath, G., Koops, H.P., and Schleifer, K.H. (1998). Combining fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with cultivation and mathematical modeling to study population structure and function of ammoniaoxidizing bacteria in activated sludge. Water Science and Technology, 37(4-5), 441-449.
195. Wagner, M., Rath, G., Amann, R., Koops, H.P., and Schleifer, K.H. (1995). In-situ identification of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 18(2), 251-264.
196. Wallace, W.S., Knowles, E., and Nicholas., D.J.D. (1970). Intermediary metabolism of carbon compounds by nitrifying bacteria. Archives of Microbiology, 70, 26-42.
197. Watson, S.W., Bock, E., Harms, H., Koops, H.P., and Hooper, A.B. (1989). Nitrifying bacteria. Baltimore, Md.: Williams and Wilkins.
198. Watson, S.W., Bock, E., Valois, F.W., Waterbury, J.B., and Schlosser, U. (1986). Nitrospiramarine gen. nov. sp. Nov.: A chemolithotrophic nitrite-oxidizing bacterium. Archives of Microbiology, 144, 1-7.
199. Wei, X., Vajrala, N., Hauser, L., Sayavedra-Soto, L.A., and Arp, D.J. (2006). Iron nutrition and physiological responses to iron stress in Nitrosomonas europaea. Archives of Microbiology, 186(2), 107-118.
200. Wilczak, A., Jacangelo, J.G., Marcinko, J.P., Odell, L.H., Kirmeyer, G.J., and Wolfe, R.L. (1996). Occurrence of nitrification in chloraminated distribution systems. Journal American Water Works Association, 88(7), 74-85.
201. Wintzingerode, F.V., Goëbel, U.B., and Stackebrandt, E. (1997). Determination of microbial Diversity in environmental samples: Pitfalls of PCR-based rRNA analysis. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 21, 213-229.
202. Wolfe, R.L., and Lieu, N.I. (2001). Nitrifying bacteria in drinking water. In: Bitta, G., ed. Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology. pp. 2167-2175. New York: Wiley.
203. Wolfe, R.L., Lieu, N.I., Izaguirre, G., and Means, E.G. (1990). Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in a chloraminated distribution system: Seasonal occurrence, distribution, and disinfection resistance. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 56(2), 451-462.
204. Wolfe, R.L., Means, E.G., Davis, M.K., and Barrett, S.E. (1988). Biological nitrification in covered reservoirs containing chloraminated water. Journal of American Water Works Association, 80(9), 109-114.
205. Wong-Chong, G.M., and Loehr, R.D. (1975). The kinetics of microbial nitrification. Water Research, 9(12), 1099-1106.
206. Woolschlager, J., Rittmann, B., Piriou, P., Klene, L., and Schwartz, B. (2001). Using a comprehensive model to identify the major mechanisms of a chloramines decay in distribution systems. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 1(4), 103-.
207. Woolschlager, J., and Soucie, W. (2001). Chlorine reactivity with concrete pipe surfaces. World Water and Environmental Resources, Congress of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
208. Yang, J., Harrington, G.W., and Noguera, D.R. (2004). Nitrification modeling in pilot-scale chloraminated dinking water distribution systems. In AWWA WQTC, November 2004, San Antonio, Texas.
209. Yilmaz, L.S., and Noguera, D.R. (2004). Mechanistic approach to the problem of hybridization efficiency in fluorescent in situ hybridization. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(12), 7126-7139.
210. Zahn, J.A., Arcerio, D.M., Hooper, A.B., and Dispirito, A.A. (1996). Evidence for an iron center in the ammonia monooxygenase from Nitrosomones europaee. FEBS Letters, 397(1), 35-38.
211. Zavarzin, G.A. (1958). On the inducer of the second phase of nitrification, II: The effect of heavy metals on nitrification. Microbiology, 27, 533-537.
212. Zhang, Y. (2005). Relative effects of water chemistry on aspects of iron corrosion, M.S. thesis, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, Virginia.
213. Zhang, Y., and Edwards, M. (2005). Water chemistry and growth of nitrifying bacteria in water distribution systems. In AWWA WQTC, November 2005, Quebec City, Canada.
214. Zhang, Y., and Edwards, M. (2007). Anticipating effects of water quality changes on iron corrosion and red water. Journal of Water Supply: Research & Technology-AQUA, 56(1), 55-68.
215. Zhang, Y., Griffin, A., et al. (2008a). Nitrification in premise plumbing: role of phosphate, pH and pipe corrosion. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(12), 4280-4284.
216. Zhang, Y., Griffin, A., et al. (2009). Lead contamination of potable water due to nitrification. Environmental Science & Technology, in press.
217. Zhang, Y., Triantafyllidou, S., et al. (2008b). Effect of nitrification and GAC filtration on copper and lead leaching in home plumbing systems. ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering.