Search and seizure, racial profiling, and traffic stops: A disparate impact framework

Law and Policy

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 1-30

  Pickerill, Mitchell J ^a   Mosher, Clayton ^b   Pratt, Travis ^c  

^a WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 59749088512     PISSN: 02658240     EISSN: 14679930     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9930.2008.00282.x     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Alschuler, Alvert W. (2002) "Racial Profiling and the Constitution," University of Chicago Legal Forum 2002: 163-270.
2. Batton, Candace, and Colleen Kadleck (2004) "Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Racial Profiling Research" Police Quarterly 7: 30-64.
3. Becker, Stan (2004) "Assessing the Use of Profiling in Searches by Law Enforcement Personnel," Journal of Criminal Justice 23: 183-93.
4. Belsley, David A., Edwin Kuh, and Roy E. Welsch (1980) Regression Diagnostics. New York: Wiley.
5. Black, Donald (1976) The Behavior of Law. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
6. Black, Donald (1980) The Manners and Customs of the Police. New York: Academic Press.
7. Borooah, Vani K. (2001) "Racial Bias in Police Stops and Searches: An Economic Analysis," European Journal of Political Economy 17: 17-37.
8. Brandl, S. G., James Frank, R. E. Worden, and Timothy S. Bynum (1994) "Global and Specific Attitudes Toward the Police: Disentangling the Relationship," Justice Quarterly 11: 119-34.
9. Brown, Michael K. (1981) Working the Street: Police Discretion and the Dilemmas of Control. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
10. Cao, Lin, James Frank, and Francis T. Cullen (1996) "Race, Community Context and Confidence in the Police," American Journal of Police 15: 3-22.
11. Chamlin, Mitchell B. (1989a) "Conflict Theory and Police Killings," Deviant Behavior 10: 353-368.
12. Chamlin, Mitchell B. (1989b) "A Macro Social Analysis of Change in Police Force Size, 1972-1982: Controlling for Static and Dynamic Influences," The Sociological Quarterly 30: 615-24.
13. Correia, Mark, Michael D. Reisig, and Nicholas P. Lovrich (1996) "Public Perceptions of State Police: An Analysis of Individual and Contextual Variables," Journal of Criminal Justice 24: 17-28.
14. Davis, Kenneth Culp (1971) Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
15. Davis, Kenneth Culp (1975) Police Discretion. St. Paul, MN: West.
16. Dunham, Roger G., and Geoffrey P. Alpert (1988) "Neighborhood Differences in Attitudes Toward Policing: Evidence for a Mixed-Strategy Model of Policing in a Multi-Ethnic Setting," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 79: 504-23.
17. Elliott, Delbert S., William Julius Wilson, David Huizinga, Robert J. Sampson, Amanda Elliott, and Bruce Rankin (1996) "The Effects of Neighborhood Disadvantage on Adolescent Development," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 33: 389-426.
18. Engel, Robin S., and Jennifer M. Calnon (2004) "Comparing Benchmark Methodologies for Police-Citizen Contacts: Traffic Stop Data Collection for the Pennsylvania State Police," Police Quarterly 7: 97-125.
19. Fox, John (1991) Regression Diagnostics. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
20. Fox, John, and Georges Monette (1992) "Generalized Collinearity Diagnostics," Journal of the American Statistical Association 87: 178-83.
21. Frank, James, S. G. Brandl, Francis T. Cullen, and Amy Stichman (1996) "Reassessing the Impact of Race on Citizens' Attitudes Toward the Police: A Research Note," Justice Quarterly 13: 321-34.
22. Fredrickson, D. D., and R. P. Siljander (2002) Racial Profiling. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas Publisher, LTD.
23. Goldstein, Herman (1977) Policing a Free Society. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
24. Goldstein, Joseph (1960) "Police Discretion not to Invoke the Criminal Process: Low Visibility Decisions and the Administration of Justice," Yale Law Journal 69: 543-88.
25. Gould, Jon B., and Stephen Mastrofski (2004) "Suspect Searches: Assessing Behavior under the U.S. Constitution," criminology and Public Policy 3: 315-62.
26. Grinc, R. (1994) "Angels in the Marble: Problems in Stimulating Community Involvement in Community Policing," Crime and Delinquency 40: 437-68.
27. Gross, Samuel R., and Katherine Y. Barnes (2002) "Road Work: Racial Profiling and Drug Interdiction on the Highway," Michigan Law Review 101: 651-754.
28. Gross, Samuel R., and Debra Livingston (2002) "Racial Profiling Under Attack," Columbia Law Review 102: 1413-38.
29. Harcourt, Bernard E. (2004) "Rethinking Racial Profiling: A Critique of the Comics, Civil Liberties, and Constitutional Literature and of Criminal Profiling More Generally," The University of Chicago Law Review 71: 1275-381.
30. Harris, David A. (1999) "The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why 'Driving While Black' Matters," Minnesota Law Review 84: 265-326.
31. Harris, David A. (2002) Profiles in Injustice: Why Racial Profiling Cannot Work. New York: New Press.
32. Heumann, Milton, and Lance Cassak (2003) Good Cop, Bad Cop: Racial Profiling and Competing Views of Justice. New York: Peter Lang.
33. Jaccard, James, Robert Turrisi, and Choi K. Wan (1990). Interaction Effects in Multiple Regression. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
34. Jacob, H. (1971) "Black and White Perceptions of Justice in the City," Law & Society Review 5: 69-89.
35. Klinger, David A. (1994) "Demeanor or Crime? Why 'Hostile' Citizens Are More Likely to Be Arrested," Criminology 32: 475-93.
36. Klinger, David A. (1996) "More on Demeanor and Arrest in Dade County," Criminology 34: 61-79.
37. Knowles, John, Nicola Persico, and Petra Todd (2001) "Racial Bias in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence," Journal of Political Economy 109: 203-29.
38. Latour, Francie, and Bill Dedman (2003) "Troopers Fair, Tough in Traffic Encounters," Boston Globe, 20 July: A1.
39. Lipskey, Michael (1968) Street-Level Bureaucracy. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
40. Liska, Allen E. (1987) "A Critical Examination of Macro Perspectives on Crime Control," Annual Review of Sociology 13: 67-88.
41. Liska, Allen E., and Mitchell B. Chamlin (1984) "Social Structure and Crime Control among Macrosocial Units," American Journal of Sociology 90: 383-95.
42. Maclin, Tracey (2001) "The Fourth Amendment on the Freeway," Rutgers Race & the Law Review 3: 117-89.
43. Maddala, G. S. (1992). Introduction to Econometrics. New York: Macmillan.
44. Mastrofski, Stephen D., Michael D. Reisig, and John McCluskey (2002) "Police Disrespect Toward the Public: An Encounter-Based Analysis," Criminology 39: 519-52.
45. Meeks, Kenneth (2000) Driving While Black. New York: Broadway Books.
46. Mosher, Clay, J. Mitchell Pickerill, Travis Pratt, and Nicholas Lovrich (2008) "The Importance of Context in Understanding Biased Policing: State Patrol Traffic Citations in Washington State," Police Practice and Research: An International Journal 9: 43-57.
47. Murty, Komanduri, Julian Roebuck, and James Smith (1990) "The Image of the Police in Black Atlanta Communities," Journal of Police Science and Administration 17: 250-57.
48. Novak, Kenneth J. (2004) "Disparity and Racial Profiling in Traffic Enforcement," Police Quarterly 7: 65-96.
49. Packer, Herbert (1968) The Limits of the Criminal Sanction. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
50. Pepinsky, Harold E. (1984) "Better Living Through Police Discretion," Law and Contemporary Problems 47: 249-67.
51. Persico, Nicola (2002) "Racial Profiling, Fairness, and Effectiveness of Policing," The American Economic Review 92: 1472-97.
52. Pratt, Travis C. (1998) "Race and Sentencing: A Meta-Analysis of Conflicting Empirical Research Results," Journal of Criminal Justice 26: 513-24.
53. Reiss, Albert J. (1984) "Consequences of Compliance and Deterrence Models of Law Enforcement for the Exercise of Discretion," Law and Contemporary Problems 47: 88-89.
54. Reisig, Michael D., and Mark E. Correia (1997) "Public Evaluations of Police Performance: An Analysis Across Three Levels of Policing," Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 20: 311-25.
55. Reisig, Michael D., and Andrew L. Giacomazzi (1998) "Citizen Perceptions of Community Policing: Are Attitudes Toward Police Important?" Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 21: 547-61.
56. Reisig, Michael D., and Roger B. Parks (2000) "Experience, Quality of Life, and Neighborhood Context: A Hierarchical Analysis of Satisfaction with Police," Justice Quarterly 17: 608-30.
57. Reisig, Michael D., and Meghan Stroshine Chandek (2001) "The Effect of Expectancy Disconfirmation on Outcome Satisfaction in Police-Citizen Encounters," Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 24: 88-99.
58. Reisig, Michael D., John D. McCluskey, Stephen D. Mastrofski, and William Terrill (2004) "Suspect Disrespect Toward the Police," Justice Quarterly 21: 241-68.
59. Rojek, J., Richard Rosenfeld, and Scott Decker (2004) "The Influence of Driver's Race on Traffic Stops in Missouri," Police Quarterly 7: 126-47.
60. Rudovsky, David (2001) "Law Enforcement by Stereotypes and Serendipity: Racial Profiling and Stops and Searches Without Cause," University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law 3: 298-366.
61. Schauer, Frederick (2003) Profiles, Probabilities and Stereoypes. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press.
62. Segal, Jeffrey A. (1984) "Predicting Supreme Court Cases Probabilistically: The Search and Seizure Cases: 1962-1981," American Political Science Review 78: 891-900.
63. Sharpe, N. Radke, and R. A. Roberts (1997) "The Relationship Among Sums of Squares, Correlation Coefficients, and Suppression," The American Statistician 51: 46-48.
64. Sherman, Lawrence W. (1992) Policing Domestic Violence. New York: Free Press.
65. Smith, Douglas A., Christy A. Visher, and Laura A. Davidson (1984) "Equity and Discretionary Justice: The Influence of Race on Police Arrest Decisions," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 75: 234-49.
66. Smith, Michael, and Matthew Petrocelli (2001) "Racial Profiling?: A Multivariate Analysis of Police Traffic Stop Data," Police Quarterly 4: 4-27.
67. Smith, W., D. Tomaskovic-Devey, M. T. Zingraff, M. Mason, P. Y. Warren, and C. P. Wright (2003) The North Carolina Highway Traffic Study. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
68. Terrill, William, and Michael D. Reisig (2003) "Neighborhood Context and Police Force," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40: 291-321.
69. Tomaskovic-Devey, D., M. Mason, and M. Zingraff (2004) "Looking for the Driving While Black Phenomena: Conceptualizing Racial Bias Processes and Their Associated Distributions," Police Quarterly 7: 3-29.
70. Visher, Christy A. (1983) "Gender, Police Arrest Decisions, and Notions of Chivalry," Criminology 21: 5-28.
71. Walker, Samuel (1999) The Police in America, 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill College.
72. Walker, Samuel, Cassia Spohn, and Miriam DeLone (1996) The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
73. Webb, Vince, and C. Marshall (1995) "The Relative Importance of Race and Ethnicity on Citizen Attitudes Toward the Police," American Journal of Police 14: 45-66.
74. Weitzer, Ronald (1996) "Racial Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System: Findings and Problems in the Literature," Journal of Criminal Justice 24: 309-22.
75. Wilbanks, William (1987) The Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole Publishing Company.
76. Wilson, James Q. (1973) Varieties of Police Behavior. New York: Atheneum.
77. Wilson, William Julius (1987) The Truly Disadvantaged. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
78. Zingraff, Matthew, William Smith, and Donald Tomaskovic-Devey (2000) "North Carolina Highway Traffic and Patrol Study: 'Driving While Black'," Criminologist 25: 1-4.