Mercury vapour (Hg0): Continuing toxicological uncertainties, and establishing a Canadian reference exposure level

Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 32-38

  Richardson, G Mark ^a   Brecher, Ronald W ^b   Scobie, Hugh ^c   Hamblen, Jane ^c   Samuelian, John ^c   Smith, Cindy ^d  

^a HEALTH CANADA   (Canada)

^b Globaltox International   (Canada)

^c AMEC FOSTER WHEELER   (United States)

^d STANTEC CONSULTING LTD   (Canada)

Author keywords

Hg0; Inorganic mercury; Reference exposure level; REL

Indexed keywords

ALKALI; CHLORAL ALKALI; CHLORINE; MERCURY; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ANIMAL CELL; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; ANIMAL TISSUE; ARTICLE; CANADA; DATA BASE; DENTAL ASSISTANT; DENTIST; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG UPTAKE; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; HUMAN TISSUE; MALE; MERCURIALISM; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL TOXICOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAT; SEX DIFFERENCE;

AIR POLLUTANTS, OCCUPATIONAL; ANIMALS; CANADA; CHLORINE; DATABASES, FACTUAL; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; DRUG INTERACTIONS; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; INHALATION EXPOSURE; MALE; MERCURY; NO-OBSERVED-ADVERSE-EFFECT LEVEL; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; REFERENCE VALUES; SEX FACTORS;

EID: 59049097142     PISSN: 02732300     EISSN: 10960295     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.10.004     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), 1999. Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Available from: .
2. ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists), 2001. Chlorine. In: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, seventh ed. ACGIH Worldwide, Cincinnati, OH.
3. Agocs M.M., Etzel R.A., Parrish R.G., Paschal D.C., Campagna P.R., Cohen D.S., Kilbourne E.M., and Hesse J.L. Mercury exposure from interior latex paint. N. Engl. J. Med. 323 16 (1990) 1096-1101
4. Aks S.E., Erickson T., Branches R.J.P., Naleway C., Chou H.-N., Levy P., and Hryhorczuk D. Fractional mercury levels in Brazilian gold refiners and miners. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 33 1 (1995) 1-10
5. Anger K.W. Neurobehavioural tests and systems to assess neurotoxic exposures in the workplace and community. Occup. Environ. Med. 60 (2003) 531-538
6. Aten J., Veninga A., Bruijn J.A., Prins F.A., de Heer E., and Weening J.J. Antigenic specificities of glomerular-bound autoantibodies in membranous glomerulopathy induced by mercuric chloride. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 63 (1992) 89-102
7. Barregard L., Hultberg B., Schütz A., and Sallsten G. Enzymuria in workers exposed to inorganic mercury. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 61 (1988) 65-69
8. Bazzi C., Petrini C., Rizza V., Arrigo G., Napodano P., Paparella M., and D'Amico G. Urinary N-acetyl-β-glycosaminidase excretion is a marker of tubular cell dysfunction and a predictor of outcome in primary glomerulonephritis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 17 (2002) 1890-1896
9. Beusterien K.M., Etzel R.A., Agocs M.M., Egeland G.M., Socie E.M., Rouse M.A., and Mortensen B.K. Indoor air mercury concentrations following application of interior latex paint. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 21 1 (1991) 62-64
10. 0 among dental professionals: a cross-study evaluation of psychomotor effects. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 20 (1998) 429-439
11. Branches F.J.P., Erickson T.B., Aks S.E., and Hryhorczuk D.O. The price of gold: mercury exposure in the Amazonian rain forest. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 31 2 (1993) 295-306
12. CalEPA (California Environmental Protection Agency), 2005. Mercury, Inorganic-Chronic Reference Exposure Level and Chronic Toxicity Summary. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California EPA. Available from: .
13. Capodaglio E., Pezzagno G., Bobbio J.C., and Cazzoli F. Indagine sulla funzionalita respiratoria di lavoratori addetti a produzioned elettrolitica di cloro e soda. Med. Lav. 60 3 (1969) 192-202 (In Italian)
14. Counter S.A. Neurophysiological anomalies in brainstem responses of mercury-exposed children of Andean gold miners. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 45 1 (2003) 87-95
15. Counter S.A., Buchanan L.H., and Ortega F. Mercury levels in urine and hair of children in an Andean gold-mining settlement. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 11 2 (2005) 132-137
16. Counter S.A., Buchanan L.H., and Ortega F. Neurocognitive screening of mercury-exposed children of Andean gold miners. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 12 (2006) 209-214
17. Counter S.A., Buchanan L.H., Ortega F., and Laurell G. Elevated blood mercury and neuro-otological observations in children of the Ecuadorian gold mines. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A 65 (2002) 149-163
18. de Burbure C., Buchet J.P., and Bernard A. Biomarkers of renal effects in children and adults with low environmental exposure to heavy metals. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 66 (2003) 783-798
19. Drake P.L., Rojas M., Reh C.M., Mueller C.A., and Jenkins F.M. Occupational exposure to airborne mercury during gold mining operations near El Callao, Venezuela. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 74 (2001) 206-212
20. Drasch G., Bose-O'Reilly S., Beinhoff C., Roider G., and Maydl S. The Mt. Diwata study on the Philippines 1999-assessing mercury intoxication of the population by small scale gold mining. Sci. Tot. Environ. 267 (2001) 151-168
21. Drasch G., Schupp I., Hofl H., Reinke R., and Roider G. Mercury burden of human fetal and infant tissues. Eur. J. Pediatr. 153 8 (1994) 607-610
22. 2 in the Brown Norway rat. Ann. Immunol. 129C (1978) 777-792
23. Echeverria D., Heyer N.J., Martin M.D., Naleway C.A., Woods J.S., and Bittner Jr. A.C. Behavioral effects of low-level exposure to Hg0 among dentists. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 17 (1995) 161-168
24. Echeverria D., Apposhian H.V., Woods J.S., Heyer N.J., Apposhian M.M., Bittner Jr. A.C., Mahurin R.K., and Cianciola M. Neurobehavioral effects from exposure to dental amalgam Hg0: new distinctions between recent exposure and Hg body burden. FASEB 12 (1998) 971-980
25. Echeverria D., Woods J.S., Heyer N.J., Rohlman D., Farin F.M., Li T., and Garabedian C.E. The association between a genetic polymorphism of coproporphyrinogen oxidase, dental mercury exposure and neurobehavioral response in humans. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 28 (2006) 39-48
26. Echeverria D., Woods J.S., Heyer N.J., Rohlman D.S., Farin F.M., Bittner Jr. A.C., Li T., and Garabedian C. Chronic low-level mercury exposure, BDNF polymorphism, and associations with cognitive and motor function. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 27 (2005) 781-796
27. Ellingsen D.G., Efskind J., Berg K.J., Gaarder P.I., and Thomassen Y. Renal and immunologic markers for chloralkali workers with low exposure to mercury vapour. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 26 5 (2000) 427-435
28. European Union (EU), 2007. [Draft] European Union Risk Assessment Report-Chlorine. Report R317-0801, Office of Official Publications, European Communities, Luxembourg. Available from: (dated December 2007).
29. Fawer R.F., DeRibaupierre U., Guillemin M.P., Berode M., and Lobe M. Measurement of hand tremor induced by industrial exposure to metallic mercury. Br. J. Ind. Med. 40 (1983) 204-208
30. Gonzalez-Ramirez D., Maiorino R.M., Zuniga-Charles M., Xu Z., Hurlbut K.M., Junco-Munoz P., Aposhian M.M., Dart R.C., Diaz Gama J.H., Echeverria D., Woods J.S., and Aposhian H.V. Sodium 2,3-dimercaptopropane-1-sulfonate challenge test for mercury in humans: II. Urinary mercury, porphyrins and neurobehavioral changes of dental workers in Monterrey, Mexico. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 272 1 (1995) 264-274
31. HC (Health Canada), 2004. Federal Contaminated Site Risk Assessment in Canada, Part I: Guidance on Human Health Preliminary Quantitative Risk Assessment (PQRA). Safe Environments Programme, Health Canada, Ottawa. Cat. H46-2/04-367E. ISBN 0-662-38244-7.
32. Heyer N.J., Echeverria D., Bittner Jr. A.C., Farin F.M., Garabedian C.C., and Woods J.S. Chronic low-level mercury exposure, BDNF polymorphism, and associations with self-reported symptoms and mood. Toxicol. Sci. 81 2 (2004) 354-363
33. Hirszel P., Michaelson J.H., Dodge K., Yamase H., and Bigazzi P.E. Mercury-induced autoimmune glomerulonephritis in inbred rats-part II. Immunohistopathology, histopathology and effects of prostaglandin administration. Surv. Synth. Pathol. Res. 4 (1985) 412-422
34. Hongo T., Abe T., Ohtsuka R., Komai M., Okiyama T., Amano K., Toyo-Oka T., and Suzuki T. Urinary mercury monitoring of university staff and students occasionally exposed to mercury vapor. Ind. Health 32 1 (1994) 17-27
35. Hryhorczuk D., Persky V., Piorkowski J., Davis J., Moomey C.M., Krantz A., Runkle K.D., Saxer T., Baughman T., and McCann K. Residential mercury spills from gas regulators. Environ. Health Perspect. 114 6 (2006) 848-852
36. Hultman P., and Enestrom S. Dose-response studies in murine mercury-induced autoimmunity and immune-complex disease. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 113 2 (1992) 199-208
37. Hurtado J., Gonzales G.F., and Steenland K. Mercury exposures in informal gold miners and relatives in southern Peru. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 12 4 (2006) 340-345
38. Jin T., Nordberg G., Wu X., Ye T., Kong Q., Wang Z., Zhuang F., and Cai S. Urinary N-acetyl-beta-d-glucosaminidase isoenzymes as biomarker of renal dysfunction caused by cadmium in a general population. Environ. Res. 81 2 (1999) 167-173
39. Jokstad A. Mercury excretion and occupational exposure of dental personnel. Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol. 18 3 (1990) 143-148
40. Khalil-Manesh F., Gonick H.C., Cohen A.H., Alinovi R., Bergamaschi E., Mutti A., and Rosen V.J. Experimental model of lead nephropathy. I. Continuous high-dose lead administration. Kidney Int. 41 5 (1992) 1192-1203
41. Koliakos G., Papachristou F., Koussi A., Perifanis V., Tsatra I., Souliou E., and Athanasiou M. Urine biochemical markers of early renal dysfunction are associated with iron overload in beta-thalassaemia. Clin. Lab. Haematol. 25 2 (2003) 105-109
42. Langworth S., Elinder C.G., Sundquist K.G., and Vesterberg O. Renal and immunological effects of occupational exposure to inorganic mercury. Br. J. Ind. Med. 49 6 (1992) 394-401
43. Liang Y.-X., Sun R.-K., Sun Y., Chen Z.-Q., and Li L.-H. Psychological effects of low exposure to mercury vapor: application of a computer-administered neurobehavioral evaluation system. Environ. Res. 60 (1993) 320-327
44. Lindqvist K.J., MaKene W.J., Shaba J.K., and Nantulya V. Immunofluorescence and electron microscopic studies of kidney biopsies from patients with nephrotic syndrome, possibly induced by skin lightening creams containing mercury. East Afr. Med. J. 51 (1974) 168-169
45. Lorscheider F.L., Vimy M.J., and Summers A.O. Mercury exposure from "silver" tooth fillings: emerging evidence questions a traditional dental paradigm. FASEB J. 9 7 (1995) 504-508
46. Matsuo N., Takasugi M., Kuroiwa A., and Ueda H. Thymic and splenic alterations in mercuric chloride-induced glomerulopathy. In: Brown S.S., and Kodama Y. (Eds). Toxicology of Metals: Clinical and Experimental Research (1987), Ellis Horwood Limited, Chichester 333-334
47. Menke R., and Wallis G. Detection of mercury in air in the presence of chlorine and water vapor. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 41 2 (1980) 120-124
48. Mensing T., Welge P., Voss B., Fels L.M., Fricke H.H., Bruning T., and Wilhelm M. Renal toxicity after chronic inhalation exposure of rats to trichloroethylene. Toxicol. Lett. 128 1-3 (2002) 243-247
49. Michaelson J.H., McCoy J.P., Hirzel P., and Bigazzi P.E. Mercury-induced autoimmune glomerulonephritis in inbred rats-part I. Kinetics and species specificity of autoimmune responses. Surv. Synth. Pathol. Res. 4 (1985) 401-411
50. 2+) and methyl mercury in man. In: Miller M.W., and Clarkson T.W. (Eds). Mercury, Mercurials and Mercaptans (1973), Thomas, Springfield, IL 23-55 (cited in Thomas et al., 1986)
51. Morgan D.L., Chanda S.M., Price H.C., Fernando R., Liu J., Brambila E., O'Connor R.W., Beliles R.P., and Barone Jr. S. Disposition of inhaled mercury vapor in pregnant rats: maternal toxicity and effects on developmental outcome. Toxicol. Sci. 66 2 (2002) 261-273
52. Nielsen J.B., and Anderson O. Disposition and retention of mercuric chloride in mice after oral and parenteral administration. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 30 (1990) 167-180
53. Nielsen J.B., and Anderson O. Oral mercuric chloride exposure in mice: effects of dose on intestinal absorption and relative organ distribution. Toxicology 59 (1989) 1-10
54. Nielson J.B., and Hultman P. Mercury-induced autoimmunity in mice. Environ. Health Perspect. 110 Suppl. 5 (2002) 877-881
55. Ngim C.H., Foo S.C., Boey K.W., and Jeyaratnam J. Chronic neurobehavioral effects of elemental mercury in dentists. Br. J. Ind. Med. 49 (1992) 782-790
56. OAEI (O'Connor Associates Environmental Inc.), 2000. Development of a Field Method for Screening Soils Contaminated with Metallic Mercury. Unpublished contract report to Public Works and Government Services Canada, Winnipeg, MB, dated March 2000.
57. Orloff K.G., Ulirsch G., Wilder L., Block A., Fagliano J., and Pasqualo J. Human exposure to elemental mercury in a contaminated residential building. Arch. Environ. Health 52 3 (1997) 169-172
58. Pamphlett R., and Coote P. Entry of low doses of mercury vapor into the nervous system. Neurotoxicology 19 1 (1998) 39-47
59. Pamphlett R., Ewan K.B., McQuilty R., and Waley P. Gender differences in the uptake of inorganic mercury by motor neurons. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 19 4 (1997) 287-293
60. Parsons, M.B., Smith, P.K., Goodwin, T.A., Hall, G.E.M., Sangster, A.L., Percival, J.B., 2004. Distribution, cycling, and fate of mercury and associated elements at historical lode gold mines in Nova Scotia, Canada. In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant, Ljubljana, Slovenia, June 27-July 2, 2004.
61. Patil L.R.S., Smith R.G., Vorwald A.J., and Mooney T.F. The health of diaphragm cell workers exposed to chlorine. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 31 (1970) 678-686
62. Pavlish J.H., Sondreal E.A., Mann M.D., Olson E.S., Galbreath K.C., Laudal D.L., and Benson S.A. Status of mercury control options for coal-fired power plants. Fuel Process. Technol. 82 (2003) 89-165
63. Pelletier L., Rossert J., Pasquier R., Vial M.C., and Druet P. Role of CD8+ cells in mercury-induced autoimmunity or immunosuppression in the rat. Scand. J. Immunol. 31 (1990) 65-74
64. Piikivi L. Cardiovascular reflexes and low long-term exposure to mercury vapor. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 61 (1989) 391-395
65. Piikivi L., and Hanninen H. Subjective symptoms and psychological performance of chlorine-alkali workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 15 (1989) 69-74
66. Piikivi L., and Tolonen U. EEG findings in chlor-alkali workers subjected to low long term exposure to mercury vapor. Br. J. Ind. Med. 46 (1989) 370-375
67. Pusey C.D., Bowman C., Morgan A., Weetman A.P., Hartley B., and Lockwood C.M. Kinetics and pathogenicity of autoantibodies induced by mercuric chloride in the brown Norway rat. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 81 (1990) 76-82
68. Ramirez G.B., Pagulayan O., Akagi H., Francisco Rivera A., Lee L.V., Berroya A., Vince Cruz M.C., and Casintahan D. Tagum study II: follow-up study at two years of age after prenatal exposure to mercury. Pediatrics 111 3 (2003) e289-e295
69. Richards, J., 2005. Capabilities and Limitations of Available Control Techniques for Mercury Emissions from Cement Kilns. R&D Serial No. 2748a, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, USA, 49 p.
70. Richardson G.M., and Allan M. A Monte Carlo assessment of mercury exposure and risks from dental amalgam. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 2 4 (1996) 709-761
71. Roels H.A., Hoet P., and Lison D. Usefulness of biomarkers of exposure to inorganic mercury, lead, or cadmium in controlling occupational and environmental risks of nephrotoxicity. Ren. Fail. 21 3-4 (1999) 251-262
72. Roman-Franco A.A., Turiello M., Albini B., Ossi E., Milgrom F., and Andres G.A. Anti-basement membrane antibodies and antigen-antibody complexes in rabbits injected with mercuric chloride. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 9 (1978) 464-481
73. Rosenman K.D., Valciukas J.A., Glickman L., Meyers B.R., and Cinotti A. Sensitive indicators of inorganic mercury toxicity. Arch. Environ. Health 41 (1986) 208-215
74. Rojas M., Drake P.L., and Roberts S.M. Assessing mercury health effects in gold workers near El Callao, Venezuela. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 43 2 (2001) 158-165
75. Silbergeld E.K., Silva I.A., and Nyland J.F. Mercury autoimmunity: implications for occupational and environmental health. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 207 Suppl. 2 (2005) 282-292
76. Suzuki T., Shishido S., and Ishihara N. Interaction of inorganic to organic mercury in their metabolism in the human body. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 38 (1976) 103-113
77. Thomas D.J., Gisher H.L., Sumler M.L., Marcuse A.H., Mushak P., and Hall L.L. Sexual differences in the distribution and retention of organic and inorganic mercury in methyl mercury treated rats. Environ. Res. 41 (1986) 219-234
78. Tsuji J.S., Williams P.R.D., Edwards M.R., Allamneni K.P., Kelsh M.A., Paustenbach D.J., and Sheehan P.J. Evaluation of mercury in urine as an indicator of exposure to low levels of mercury vapor. Environ. Health Perspect. 111 4 (2003) 623-630
79. Tubbs R.R., Gephardt G.N., McMahon J.T., Pohl M.C., Vidt D.G., Barenberg S.A., and Valenzuela R. Membranous glomerulonephritis associated with industrial mercury exposure. Study of pathogenetic mechanisms. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 77 4 (1982) 409-413
80. Umbangtalad S., Parkpian P., Visvanathan C., DeLaune R.D., and Jugsujinda A. Assessment of Hg contamination and exposure to miners and schoolchildren at a small-scale gold mining and recovery operation in Thailand. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 42 14 (2007) 2071-2079
81. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), 2007. Mercury, elemental (CASRN 7439-97-6). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC. Available from: (accessed 08.08.07).
82. Van der Meide P.H., De Labie M.C., Botman C.A., van Bennekom W.P., Olsson T., Aten J., and Weening J.J. Mercuric chloride down-regulates T cell interferon-gamma production in Brown Norway but not in Lewis rats: role of glutathione. Eur. J. Immunol. 23 3 (1993) 675-681
83. van Netten C., and Teschke K.E. Assessment of mercury presence and exposure in a lighthouse with a mercury drive system. Environ. Res. 145 1 (1988) 48-57
84. Vimy M.J., Takahashi Y., and Lorscheider F.L. Maternal-fetal distribution of mercury (203 Hg) released from dental amalgam fillings. Am. J. Physiol. 258 (1990) R939-R945
85. Viola P.L., and Cassano G.B. The effect of chlorine on mercury vapor intoxication; autoradiographic study. Med. Lav. 59 6-7 (1968) 437-444
86. Wilson, R., Bright, D., Cameron, M., Healey, N., Petrovic, S., Purssell, R., LaCoste, C., Wickstrom, G. 2003. Human Health Risk Assessment of Environmental Contamination at Staffed Lightstations, Canadian Coast Guard Pacific Region. Canadian Coast Guard, Marine Programs, Victoria, BC.
87. Woods J.S., Echeverria D., Heyer N.J., Simmonds PL., Wilkerson J., and Farin F.M. The association between genetic polymorphisms of coproporphyrinogen oxidase and an atypical porphyrinogenic response to mercury exposure in humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 206 (2005) 113-120
88. WHO (World Health Organization), 2003. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 50-Elemental Mercury and Inorganic Mercury Compounds: Human Health Aspects. WHO, Geneva.
89. WHO (World Health Organization), 2000. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, second ed. WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 91. ISBN 92-890-1358-3.
90. WHO (World Health Organization), 1991. Environmental Health Criteria 118. Inorganic mercury. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva. 168pp.
91. WHO (World Health Organization), 1986. Recommended Neurobehavioral Core Test Battery (NCTB), Operational Guide. WHO, Office of Occupational Health, Geneva.
92. Wren C.D., and Farrell C.W. Mercury in the natural gas industry in Canada. Water Air Soil Poll. 80 (1995) 1203-1206
93. Yang J., Jiang Z., Eang Y., Qureshi I.A., and Wu X.D. Maternal-fetal transfer of metallic mercury via the placenta and milk. Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci. 27 (1997) 135-141
94. Yoshida M. Placental to fetal transfer of mercury and fetotoxicity. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 196 2 (2002) 79-88
95. Yoshida M., Satoh M., Shimada A., Yamamoto E., Yasutake A., and Tohyama C. Maternal-to-fetus transfer of mercury in metallothionein-null pregnant mice after exposure to mercury vapor. Toxicology 175 1-3 (2002) 215-222
96. Yoshida M., Satoh M., Yasutake A., Shimada A., Sumi Y., and Tohyama C. Distribution and retention of mercury in metallothionein-null mice after exposure to mercury vapor. Toxicology 29 (1999) 129-136
97. Yoshida M., Satoh H., Kojima S., and Yamamura Y. Retention and distribution of mercury in organ of neonatal guinea pigs after in utero exposure to mercury vapor. J. Trace Elem. Exp. Med. 3 3 (1990) 219-226
98. Yoshida M., Yamamura Y., and Satoh H. Distribution of mercury in guinea pig offspring after in utero exposure to mercury vapor during late gestation. Arch. Toxicol. 58 (1986) 225-228
99. Yoshida M., Watanabe C., Horie K., Satoh M., Sawada M., and Shimada A. Neurobehavioral changes in metallothionein-null mice prenatally exposed to mercury vapor. Toxicol. Lett. 155 3 (2005) 361-368