Molecular structure of low density lipoprotein: Current status and future challenges

European Biophysics Journal

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 145-158

  Prassl, Ruth ^a   Laggner, Peter ^a  

^a ERICH SCHMID INSTITUTE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE   (Austria)

Author keywords

Apolipoprotein B100; Low density lipoprotein; Molecular structure

Indexed keywords

APOLIPOPROTEIN B-100; LIPOPROTEINS, LDL; MOLECULAR STRUCTURE; RESEARCH; STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP;

EID: 58849133696     PISSN: 01757571     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00249-008-0368-y     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. TA Anderson DG Levitt LJ Banaszak 1998 The structural basis of lipid interactions in lipovitellin, a soluble lipoprotein Structure 6 895 909 10.1016/S0969-2126(98)00091-4
2. D Atkinson DM Small 1986 Recombinant lipoproteins: implication for structure and assembly of native lipoproteins Annu Rev Biophys Biophys Chem 15 403 10.1146/annurev.bb.15.060186.002155
3. D Atkinson RJ Deckelbaum DM Small GG Shipley 1977 Structure of human plasma low-density lipoproteins: molecular organization of the central core Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74 1042 1046 10.1073/pnas.74.3.1042
4. MA Austin KL Edwards 1996 Small, dense low density lipoproteins, the insulin resistance syndrome and noninsulin-dependent diabetes Curr Opin Lipidol 7 167 171
5. MA Austin MC King KM Vranizan RM Krauss 1990 Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. A proposed genetic marker for coronary heart disease risk Circulation 82 495 506
6. M Aviram S Lund-Katz MC Phillips A Chait 1988 The influence of the triglyceride content of low density lipoprotein on the interaction of apolipoprotein B-100 with cells J Biol Chem 263 16842 16848
7. M Aviram G Dankner U Cogan E Hochgraf JG Brook 1992 Lovastatin inhibits low-density lipoprotein oxidation and alters its fluidity and uptake by macrophages: in vitro and in vivo studies Metabolism 41 229 235 10.1016/0026-0495(92)90263-A
8. S Banuelos JLR Arrondo FM Goni G Pifat 1995 Surface-core relationships in human low density lipoprotein as studied by infrared spectroscopy J Biol Chem 270 9192 9196
9. MW Baumstark W Kreutz A Berg I Frey J Keul 1990 Structure of human low-density lipoprotein subfractions, determined by X-ray small-angle scattering Biochim Biophys Acta 1037 48 57
10. U Beisiegel RW St Clair 1996 An emerging understanding of the interactions of plasma lipoproteins with the arterial wall that leads to the development of atherosclerosis Curr Opin Lipidol 7 265 268
11. CJ Binder MK Chang PX Shaw YI Miller K Hartvigsen A Dewan 2002 Innate and acquired immunity in atherogenesis Nat Med 8 1218 1226 10.1038/nm1102-1218
12. J Boren I Lee W Zhu K Arnold S Taylor TL Innerarity 1998 Identification of the low density lipoprotein receptor-binding site in apolipoprotein B100 and the modulation of its binding activity by the carboxyl terminus in familial defective apo-B100 J Clin Invest 101 1084 1093 10.1172/JCI1847
13. MS Brown JL Goldstein 1976 Receptor-mediated control of cholesterol metabolism Science 191 150 154 10.1126/science.174194
14. WL Burch H Herscovitz 2000 Disulfide bonds are required for folding and secretion of apolipoprotein B regardless of its lipidation state J Biol Chem 275 16267 16274 10.1074/jbc.M000446200
15. G Camejo E Hurtcamejo O Wiklund G Bondjers 1998 Association of apo B lipoproteins with arterial proteoglycans: pathological significance and molecular basis Atherosclerosis 139 205 222 10.1016/S0021-9150(98)00107-5
16. AD Cardin J Chao VH Donaldson RL Jackson HS Margolius KR Witt 1984 Degradation of apolipoprotein-B-100 of human-plasma low-density lipoproteins by tissue and plasma kallikreins J Biol Chem 259 8522 8528
17. MJ Caslake G Stewart SP Day E Daly F McTaggart MJ Chapman 2003 Phenotype-dependent and -independent actions of rosuvastatin on atherogenic lipoprotein subfractions in hyperlipidaemia Atherosclerosis 171 245 253 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2003.08.025
18. MJ Chapman PM Laplaud G Luc P Forgez E Bruckert S Goulinet 1988 Further resolution of the low density lipoprotein spectrum in normal human plasma: physicochemical characteristics of discrete subspecies separated by density gradient ultracentrifugation J Lipid Res 29 442 458
19. MJ Chapman M Guerin E Bruckert 1998 Atherogenic, dense low-density lipoproteins. Pathophysiology and new therapeutic approaches Eur Heart J 19 Suppl A A24 A30
20. JE Chatterton ML Phillips LK Curtiss RW Milne YL Marcel VN Schumaker 1991 Mapping apolipoprotein B on the low density lipoprotein surface by immunoelectron microscopy J Biol Chem 266 5955 5962
21. JE Chatterton ML Phillips LK Curtiss R Milne JC Fruchart VN Schumaker 1995 Immunoelectron microscopy of low density lipoproteins yields a ribbon and bow model for the conformation of apolipoprotein b on the lipoprotein surface J Lipid Res 36 2027 2037
22. JE Chatterton P Schlapfer E Bütler MM Gutierrez DL Puppione CR Pullinger 1995 Identification of apolipoprotein B 100 Polymorphisms that affect low-density lipoprotein metabolism: description of a new approach involving monoclonal antibodies and dynamic light scattering Biochemistry 34 9571 9580 10.1021/bi00029a034
23. S-H Chen C-Y Yang PF Chen D Setzer M Tanimura W-H Li 1986 The complete cDNA and amino acid sequence of human apolipoprotein B-100 J Biol Chem 261 2918 2921
24. GC Chen S Zhu DA Hardman JW Schilling K Lau JP Kane 1989 Structural domains of human apolipoprotein B-100 J Biol Chem 264 14369 14375
25. GC Chen W Liu P Duchateau J Allaart RL Hamilton CM Mendel 1994 Conformational differences in human apolipoprotein B-100 among subspecies of low density lipoproteins (LDL) J Biol Chem 269 29121 29128
26. D Cojoc E Ferrari V Garbin E Di Fabrizio H Amenitsch M Rappolt B Sartori P Laggner M Burghammer C Riekel 2007 Scanning x-ray microdiffraction of optically manipulated liposomes Appl Phys Lett 91 234107-1 234107-3
27. IR Corbin H Li J Chen S Lund-Katz R Zhou JD Glickson 2006 Low-density lipoprotein nanoparticles as magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents Neoplasia 8 488 498 10.1593/neo.05835
28. A Coronado-Gray R Van Antwerpen 2003 The physical state of the LDL core influences the conformation of apolipoprotein B-100 on the lipoprotein surface FEBS Lett 533 21 24 10.1016/S0014-5793(02)03731-6
29. C Dachet C Motta D Neufcour B Jacotot 1990 Fluidity changes and chemical composition of lipoproteins in type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia Biochim Biophys Acta 1046 64 72
30. N Dashti M Gandhi X Liu X Lin JP Segrest 2002 The N-terminal 1000 residues of apolipoprotein B associate with microsomal triglyceride transfer protein to create a lipid transfer pocket required for lipoprotein assembly Biochemistry 41 6978 6987 10.1021/bi011757l
31. RJ Deckelbaum GG Shipley DM Small RS Lees PK George 1975 Thermal transitions in human plasma low density lipoproteins Science 190 392 394 10.1126/science.170681
32. RJ Deckelbaum GG Shipley DM Small 1977 Structure and interactions of lipids in human plasma low density lipoproteins J Biol Chem 252 744 754
33. S Dejager E Bruckert MJ Chapman 1993 Dense low lipoprotein subspecies with diminished oxidative resistance predominate in combined hyperlipidemia J Lipid Res 34 295 308
34. EG Finer R Henry RB Leslie RN Robertson 1975 NMR studies of pig low-and high-density serum lipoproteins. Molecular motions and morphology Biochim Biophys Acta 380 320 337
35. RA Firestone 1994 Low-density lipoprotein as a vehicle for targeting antitumor compounds to cancer cells Bioconjug Chem 5 105 113 10.1021/bc00026a002
36. C Foucher L Lagrost V Maupoil M Lemeste L Rochette P Gambert 1996 Alterations of lipoprotein fluidity by non-esterified fatty acids known to affect cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity-an electron spin resonance study Eur J Biochem 236 436 442
37. AE Fraley S Tsimikas 2006 Clinical applications of circulating oxidized low-density lipoprotein biomarkers in cardiovascular disease Curr Opin Lipidol 17 502 509 10.1097/01.mol.0000245255.40634.b5
38. JC Frias MJ Lipinski SE Lipinski MT Albelda 2007 Modified lipoproteins as contrast agents for imaging of atherosclerosis Contrast Media Mol Imaging 2 16 23 10.1002/cmmi.124
39. NF Galeano M Alhaideri F Keyserman SC Rumsey RJ Deckelbaum 1998 Small dense low density lipoprotein has increased affinity for LDL receptor-independent cell surface binding sites: a potential mechanism for increased atherogenicity J Lipid Res 39 1263 1273
40. DL Gantz MT Walsh DM Small 2000 Morphology of sodium deoxycholate- solubilized apolipoprotein B-100 using negative stain and vitreous ice electron microscopy J Lipid Res 41 1464 1472
41. 2-terminal region of apolipoprotein B is sufficient for lipoprotein association with glycosaminoglycans J Biol Chem 273 35355 35361 10.1074/jbc.273.52.35355
42. T Gulik-Krzywicki M Yates LP Aggerbeck 1979 Structure of serum low-density lipoprotein J Mol Biol 131 475 484 10.1016/0022-2836(79)90003-2
43. M Hammel P Laggner R Prassl 2003 Structural characterisation of nucleoside loaded low density lipoprotein as a main criterion for the applicability as drug delivery system Chem Phys Lipids 123 193 207 10.1016/S0009-3084(03)00002-1
44. T Hevonoja MO Pentikainen MT Hyvonen PT Kovanen M Ala-Korpela 2000 Structure of low density lipoprotein (LDL) particles: basis for understanding molecular changes in modified LDL Biochim Biophys Acta 1488 189 210
45. JE Hokanson RM Krauss JJ Albers MA Austin JD Brunzell 1995 LDL physical and chemical properties in familial combined hyperlipidemia Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15 452 459
46. AV Hospattankar SW Law K Lackner HB Brewer Jr 1986 Identification of low density lipoprotein receptor binding domains of human apolipoprotein B-100: a proposed consensus LDL receptor binding sequence of apoB-100 Biochem Biophys Res Commun 139 1078 1085 10.1016/S0006-291X(86)80287-X
47. E Hurt-Camejo G Camejo P Sartipy 2000 Phospholipase A2 and small, dense low-density lipoprotein Curr Opin Lipidol 11 465 471 10.1097/00041433-200010000- 00004
48. MM Hussain J Shi P Dreizen 2003 Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and its role in apoB-lipoprotein assembly J Lipid Res 44 22 32 10.1194/jlr.R200014-JLR200
49. A Ikai 1980 Extraction of the apo B cluster from human low density lipoprotein with Tween 80 J Biochem 88 1349 1357
50. MF Ingram GS Shelness 1997 Folding of the amino-terminal domain of apolipoprotein B initiates microsomal triglyceride transfer protein-dependent lipid transfer a to nascent very low density lipoprotein J Biol Chem 272 10279 10286 10.1074/jbc.272.15.10279
51. TL Innerarity KH Weisgraber SCJ Rall RW Mahley 1987 Functional domains of apolipoprotein E and apolipoprotein B Acta Med Scand Suppl 715 51 59
52. ZG Jiang M Carraway CJ McKnight 2005 Limited proteolysis and biophysical characterization of the lipovitellin homology region in apolipoprotein B Biochemistry 44 1163 1173 10.1021/bi048286y
53. ZG Jiang MN Simon JS Wall CJ McKnight 2007 Structural analysis of reconstituted lipoproteins containing the N-terminal domain of apolipoprotein B Biophys J 92 4097 4108 10.1529/biophysj.106.101105
54. A Johs M Hammel I Waldner RP May P Laggner R Prassl 2006 Modular structure of solubilized human apolipoprotein B-100. Low resolution model revealed by small angle neutron scattering J Biol Chem 281 19732 19739 10.1074/jbc.M601688200
55. L Klein M Aviram GJ Brook S Mokady U Cogan 1991 Decreased very low density lipoprotein fluidity in familial hypercholesterolemia Isr J Med Sci 27 70 74
56. TJ Knott RJ Pease LM Powell SC Wallis SC Rall TL Innerarity 1986 Complete protein sequence and identification of structural domains of human apolipoprotein B Nature 323 734 738 10.1038/323734a0
57. Kostner GM, Laggner P (1989) Chemical and physical properties of lipoproteins. In: Fruchart JC, Shepherd J (eds) Human plasma lipoproteins-clinical biochemistry, principles, methods, applications. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp 23-54
58. J Kreuzer AL White TJ Knott ML Jien M Mehrabian J Scott 1997 Amino terminus of apolipoprotein B suffices to produce recognition of malondialdehyde-modified low density lipoprotein by the scavenger receptor of human monocyte-macrophages J Lipid Res 38 324 342
59. A Krisko C Etchebest 2007 Theoretical model of human apolipoprotein B100 tertiary structure Proteins 66 342 358 10.1002/prot.21229
60. ES Krul Y Kleinman M Kinoshita B Pfleger K Oida A Law 1988 Regional specificities of monoclonal anti-human apolipoprotein B antibodies J Lipid Res 29 937 947
61. HS Kruth 1997 The fate of lipoprotein cholesterol entering the arterial wall Curr Opin Lipidol 8 246 252
62. Laggner P (1995) X-ray and neutron small-angle scattering on plasma lipoproteins. In: Brumberger H (ed) Modern aspects of small-angle scattering. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp 371-386
63. P Laggner GM Kostner 1978 Thermotropic changes in the surface structure of lipoprotein B from human-plasma low-density lipoproteins. A spin-label study Eur J Biochem 84 227 232 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12160.x
64. P Laggner K Müller 1978 The structure of serum lipoproteins as analysed by X-ray small-angle scattering Q Rev Biophys 11 371 425
65. P Laggner G Degovics KW Müller O Glatter GM Kostner A Holasek 1977 Molecular packing and fluidity of lipids in human serum low density lipoproteins Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem 358 771 778
66. P Laggner MJ Chapman S Goldstein 1978 An X-Ray Small-Angle Scattering Study of Trypsin Treated Low Density Lipoprotein from Human Serum Biochem Biophys Res Commun 82 1332 1339 10.1016/0006-291X(78)90335-2
67. P Laggner GM Kostner U Rakusch DL Worcester 1981 Neutron small-angle scattering on selectively deuterated human plasma low density lipoproteins. The location of polar phospholipid headgroups J Biol Chem 256 11832 11839
68. P Laggner GM Kostner G Degovics DL Worcester 1984 Structure of the cholesteryl ester core of human plasma low density lipoproteins: selective deuteration and neutron small-angle scattering Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81 4389 4393 10.1073/pnas.81.14.4389
69. A Law J Scott 1990 A cross-species comparison of the apolipoprotein B domain that binds to the LDL receptor J Lipid Res 31 1109 1120
70. L Li D Mustafi Q Fu V Tereshko DL Chen JD Tice 2006 Nanoliter microfluidic hybrid method for simultaneous screening and optimization validated with crystallization of membrane proteins Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 19243 19248 10.1073/pnas.0607502103
71. S Lund-Katz MC Phillips 1986 Packing of cholesterol molecules in human low-density lipoprotein Biochemistry 25 1562 1568 10.1021/bi00355a016
72. S Lund-Katz JA Ibdah JY Letizia MT Thomas MC Phillips 1988 A 13C NMR characterization of lysine residues in apolipoprotein B and their role in binding to the low density lipoprotein receptor J Biol Chem 263 13831 13838
73. S Lund-Katz PM Laplaud MC Phillips MJ Chapman 1998 Apolipoprotein B-100 conformation and particle surface charge in human LDL subspecies: implication for LDL receptor interaction Biochemistry 37 12867 12874 10.1021/bi980828m
74. VY Lunin NL Lunina S Ritter I Frey A Berg K Diederichs 2001 Low-resolution data analysis for low-density lipoprotein particle Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr 57 108 121 10.1107/S0907444900014608
75. S Lusa P Somerharju 1998 Degradation of low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol esters by lysosomal lipase in-vitro-effect of core physical state and basis of species selectivity Biochim Biophys Acta 1389 112 122
76. AJ Lusis 2000 Atherosclerosis Nature 407 233 241 10.1038/35025203
77. V Luzzati A Tardieu LP Aggerbeck 1979 Structure of serum low-density lipoprotein J Mol Biol 131 435 473 10.1016/0022-2836(79)90002-0
78. CJ Mann TA Anderson J Read SA Chester GB Harrison S Kochl 1999 The structure of vitellogenin provides a molecular model for the assembly and secretion of atherogenic lipoproteins J Mol Biol 285 391 408 10.1006/jmbi.1998.2298
79. BJ Mckeone JR Patsch HJ Pownall 1993 Plasma triglycerides determine low-density-lipoprotein composition, physical-properties, and cell-specific binding in cultured-cells J Clin Invest 91 1926 1933 10.1172/JCI116411
80. JR McNamara DM Small ZL Li EJ Schaefer 1996 Differences in LDL subspecies involve alterations in lipid composition and conformational changes in apolipoprotein B J Lipid Res 37 1924 1935
81. JD Morrisett JW Gaubatz AP Tarver JK Allen HJ Pownell P Laggner 1984 Thermotropic properties and molecular dynamics of cholesteryl ester rich very low density lipoproteins: effect of hydrophobic core on polar surface Biochemistry 23 5343 5352 10.1021/bi00317a037
82. RE Morton JS Parks 1996 Plasma cholesteryl ester transfer activity is modulated by the phase transition of the lipoprotein core J Lipid Res 37 1915 1923
83. F Nigon P Lesnik M Rouis MJ Chapman 1991 Discrete subspecies of human low density lipoproteins are heterogeneous in their interaction with the cellular LDL receptor J Lipid Res 32 1741 1753
84. M Nikanjam EA Blakely KA Bjornstad X Shu TF Budinger TM Forte 2007 Synthetic nano-low density lipoprotein as targeted drug delivery vehicle for glioblastoma multiforme Int J Pharm 328 86 94 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.07.046
85. M Nikanjam AR Gibbs CA Hunt TF Budinger TM Forte 2007 Synthetic nano-LDL with paclitaxel oleate as a targeted drug delivery vehicle for glioblastoma multiforme J Control Release 124 163 171 10.1016/j.jconrel.2007.09.007
86. B Nohammer C David M Burghammer C Riekel 2005 Coherence-matched microfocusing of hard x rays Appl Phys Lett 86 163104 10.1063/1.1905782
87. EV Orlova MB Sherman W Chiu H Mowri LC Smith AM Gotto 1999 Three-dimensional structure of low density lipoproteins by electron cryomicroscopy Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 8420 8425 10.1073/pnas.96.15.8420
88. CJ Packard 2006 Small dense low-density lipoprotein and its role as an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease Curr Opin Lipidol 17 412 417 10.1097/01.mol.0000236367.42755.c1
89. C Packard M Caslake J Shepherd 2000 The role of small, dense low density lipoprotein (LDL): a new look Int J Cardiol 74 Suppl 1 S17 S22 10.1016/S0167-5273(99)00107-2
90. JS Parks KW Huggins AK Gebre ER Burleson 2000 Phosphatidylcholine fluidity and structure affect lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase activity J Lipid Res 41 546 553
91. MO Pentikainen R Oksjoki K Oorni PT Kovanen 2002 Lipoprotein lipase in the arterial wall: linking LDL to the arterial extracellular matrix and much more Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22 211 217 10.1161/hq0102.101551
92. ML Phillips VN Schumaker 1989 Conformation of apolipoprotein B after lipid extraction of low-density lipoproteins attached to an electron microscope grid J Lipid Res 30 415 422
93. HJ Pownall J Shepherd WW Mantulin LA Sklar AM Gotto 1980 Effect of saturated and polyunsaturated fat diets on the composition and structure of human low-density lipoproteins Atherosclerosis 36 299 314 10.1016/0021-9150(80) 90211-7
94. R Prassl B Schuster PM Abuja M Zechner GM Kostner P Laggner 1995 A comparison of structure and thermal behavior in human plasma lipoprotein(a) and low-density lipoprotein. calorimetry and small-angle x-ray scattering Biochemistry 34 3795 3801 10.1021/bi00011a037
95. R Prassl JM Chapman F Nigon M Sara S Eschenburg C Betzel 1996 Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of a low density lipoprotein from human plasma J Biol Chem 271 28731 28733 10.1074/jbc.271.46.28731
96. R Prassl M Hammel P Laggner 2006 Small-angle solution scattering of proteins Recent Adv Res Updates 7 101 112
97. M Pregetter R Prassl B Schuster M Kriechbaum F Nigon J Chapman 1999 Microphase separation in low density lipoproteins. Evidence for a fluid triglyceride core below the lipid melting transition J Biol Chem 274 1334 1341 10.1074/jbc.274.3.1334
98. CD Putnam M Hammel GL Hura JA Tainer 2007 X-ray solution scattering (SAXS) combined with crystallography and computation: defining accurate macromolecular structures, conformations and assemblies in solution Q Rev Biophys 40 191 285 10.1017/S0033583507004635
99. PC Rensen RL de Vrueh J Kuiper MK Bijsterbosch EA Biessen TJ van Berkel 2001 Recombinant lipoproteins: lipoprotein-like lipid particles for drug targeting Adv Drug Deliv Rev 47 251 276 10.1016/S0169-409X(01)00109-0
100. S Ritter I Frey K Diederichs D Grathwohl J Keul MW Baumstark 1997 Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction data of two different human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) subfractions Proteins 28 293 297 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0134(199706)28:2<293::AID-PROT17>3.0.CO;2-D
101. A Sali TL Blundell 1993 Comparative protein modelling by satisfaction of spatial restraints J Mol Biol 234 779 815 10.1006/jmbi.1993.1626
102. VN Schumaker ML Phillips JE Chatterton 1994 Apolipoprotein B and low-density lipoprotein structure: implications for biosynthesis of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins Adv Protein Chem 45 205 248 10.1016/S0065- 3233(08)60641-5
103. B Schuster R Prassl F Nigon MJ Chapman P Laggner 1995 Core lipid structure is a major determinant of the oxidative resistance of low density lipoprotein Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 2509 2513 10.1073/pnas.92.7.2509
104. JP Segrest MK Jones VK Mishra GM Anantharamaiah DW Garber 1994 ApoB-100 has a pentapartite structure composed of three amphipathic α-helical domains alternating with two amphipathic β-strand domains Arterioscler Thromb 14 1674 1685
105. JP Segrest MK Jones N Dashti 1999 N-terminal domain of apolipoprotein B has structural homology to lipovitellin and microsomal triglyceride transfer protein: a ''lipid pocket'' model for self- assembly of apoB-containing lipoprotein particles J Lipid Res 40 1401 1416
106. JP Segrest MK Jones H De Loof N Dashti 2001 Structure of apolipoprotein B-100 in low density lipoproteins J Lipid Res 42 1346 1367
107. GS Shelness L Hou AS Ledford JS Parks RB Weinberg 2003 Identification of the lipoprotein initiating domain of apolipoprotein B J Biol Chem 278 44702 44707 10.1074/jbc.M307562200
108. MB Sherman EV Orlova GL Decker W Chiu HJ Pownall 2003 Structure of triglyceride-rich human low-density lipoproteins according to cryoelectron microscopy Biochemistry 42 14988 14993 10.1021/bi0354738
109. P Sivaram SY Choi LK Curtiss IJ Goldberg 1994 An amino-terminal fragment of apolipoprotein B binds to lipoprotein lipase and may facilitate its binding to endothelial cells J Biol Chem 269 9409 9412
110. K Skalen M Gustafsson EK Rydberg LM Hulten O Wiklund TL Innerarity 2002 Subendothelial retention of atherogenic lipoproteins in early atherosclerosis Nature 417 750 754 10.1038/nature00804
111. A Sommer E Prenner R Gorges H Stütz H Grillhofer GM Kostner F Paltauf A Hermetter 1992 Organization of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin in the surface monolayer of low density lipoprotein and lipoprotein(a) as determined by time-resolved fluorometry J Biol Chem 267 24217 24222
112. CO Sorzano S Jonic M Cottevieille E Larquet N Boisset S Marco 2007 3D electron microscopy of biological nanomachines: principles and applications Eur Biophys J 36 995 1013 10.1007/s00249-007-0203-x
113. JM Spin D Atkinson 1995 Cryoelectron microscopy of low density lipoprotein in vitreous ice Biophys J 68 2115 2123
114. D Steinberg S Parthasarathy S Carew JC Khoo JL Witztum 1989 Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity N Engl J Med 320 915 924
115. N Swaminathan F Aladjem 1976 The monosaccharide composition and sequence of the carbohydrate moiety of human serum low density lipoproteins Biochemistry 15 1516 10.1021/bi00652a024
116. B Teng A Sniderman RM Krauss PO Kwiterovich RW Milne YL Marcel 1985 Modulation of apolipoprotein B antigenic determinants in human low density lipoprotein subclasses J Biol Chem 260 5067 5072
117. K Tran J Boren J Macri YW Wang R Mcleod RK Avramoglu 1998 Functional analysis of disulfide linkages clustered within the amino terminus of human apolipoprotein b J Biol Chem 273 7244 7251 10.1074/jbc.273.13.7244
118. C Tribet R Audebert JL Popot 1996 Amphipols - Polymers that keep membrane-proteins soluble in aqueous-solutions Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 15047 15050 10.1073/pnas.93.26.15047
119. C Tribet R Audebert JL Popot 1997 Stabilization of hydrophobic colloidal dispersions in water with amphiphilic polymers: application to integral membrane proteins Langmuir 13 5570 5576 10.1021/la970136j
120. R Van Antwerpen 2004 Preferred orientations of LDL in vitreous ice indicate a discoid shape of the lipoprotein particle Arch Biochem Biophys 432 122 127
121. R Van Antwerpen GC Chen CR Pullinger JP Kane M Labelle RM Krauss 1997 Cryo-electron microscopy of low density lipoprotein and reconstituted discoidal high density lipoprotein: imaging of the apolipoprotein moiety J Lipid Res 38 659 669
122. M Vauhkonen P Somerharju 1989 Parinoroyl and pyrenyl phospholipids as probes for the lipid surface layer of human low density lipoproteins Biochim Biophys Acta 984 81 87 10.1016/0005-2736(89)90345-3
123. MT Walsh D Atkinson 1983 Sobulization of low-density lipoprotein with sodium deoxycholate and recombination of apolipoprotein B with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine Biochemistry 22 3170 3178 10.1021/bi00282a021
124. MT Walsh D Atkinson 1986 Physical properties of apoprotein B in mixed micelles with sodium deoxycholate and in a vesicle with dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine J Lipid Res 27 316 325
125. MT Walsh D Atkinson 1990 Calorimetric and spectroscopic investigation of the unfolding of human apolipoprotein B J Lipid Res 31 1051 1062
126. L Wang MT Walsh DM Small 2006 Apolipoprotein B is conformationally flexible but anchored at a triolein/water interface: a possible model for lipoprotein surfaces Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 6871 6876 10.1073/pnas. 0602213103
127. KJ Williams I Tabas 2005 Lipoprotein retention-and clues for atheroma regression Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25 1536 1540 10.1161/01.ATV.0000174795. 62387.d3
128. S Yang S Zhang 2006 Self-assembling behavior of designer lipid-like peptides Supramolecular Chem 18 289 396
129. C-Y Yang S-H Chen SH Gianturco WA Bradley JT Sparrow M Tanimura 1986 Sequence, structure, receptor-binding domains and internal repeats of human apolipoprotein B-100 Nature 323 738 742 10.1038/323738a0
130. CY Yang TW Kim Q Pao L Chan RD Knapp AM Gotto Jr 1989 Structure and conformational analysis of lipid-associating peptides of apolipoprotein B-100 produced by trypsinolysis J Protein Chem 8 689 699 10.1007/BF01024895
131. PL Yeagle RG Langdon RB Martin 1977 Phospholipid-protein interactions in human low density lipoprotein detected by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance Biochemistry 16 3487 3491 10.1021/bi00634a031
132. G Zampighi JA Reynolds RM Watt 1980 Characterization of apolipoprotein B from human serum low density lipoprotein in n-dodecyl octaethyleneglycol monoether: an electron microscope study J Cell Biol 87 555 561 10.1083/jcb.87.3.555
133. R Zechner GM Kostner H Dieplinger G Degovics P Laggner 1984 In vitro modification of the chemical composition of human plasma low-density lipoproteins: Effects on morphology and thermal properties Chem Phys Lipids 36 111 119 10.1016/0009-3084(84)90064-1
134. X Zhao Y Nagai PJ Reeves P Kiley HG Khorana S Zhang 2006 Designer short peptide surfactants stabilize G protein-coupled receptor bovine rhodopsin Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 17707 17712 10.1073/pnas.0607167103
135. G Zheng J Chen H Li JD Glickson 2005 Rerouting lipoprotein nanoparticles to selected alternate receptors for the targeted delivery of cancer diagnostic and therapeutic agents Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 17757 17762 10.1073/pnas.0508677102