Exsanguination in trauma: A review of diagnostics and treatment options

Injury

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 11-20

  Geeraedts Jr , L M G ^a   Kaasjager, H A H ^b   van Vugt, A B ^a   Frolke J P M ^a  

^a RADBOUD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b RIJNSTATE HOSPITAL   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Coagulopathy; Damage control; Exsanguinations; Haemorrhage; Shock; Transfusion; Trauma

Indexed keywords

FRESH FROZEN PLASMA;

ABDOMINAL BLUNT TRAUMA; ARTIFICIAL EMBOLISM; BLEEDING; BLOOD CLOTTING; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BLOOD COMPONENT; BLOOD SAMPLING; BLOOD VOLUME; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; EMERGENCY CARE; FLUID RESUSCITATION; HEMOPERITONEUM; HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK; HOSPITAL CARE; HUMAN; INJURY; LAPAROTOMY; NONHUMAN; PERITONEUM LAVAGE; PHLEBOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; THROMBOELASTOGRAPHY; TREATMENT RESPONSE; ULTRASOUND; VITAL SIGN;

BLOOD TRANSFUSION; EMERGENCIES; EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES; HEMORRHAGE; HEMOSTATICS; HUMANS; MULTIPLE TRAUMA; RESUSCITATION; SHOCK, HEMORRHAGIC;

EID: 58249139857     PISSN: 00201383     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2008.10.007     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Advanced Life Support Group, BMJ Books, ISBN 0-7279-1554-1.
2. ® The practical approach, 3rd ed.; 2001.
3. Advanced trauma life support. 7th ed. (1997), American College of Surgeons. 1-880696-14-2
4. American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma. Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) program for doctors (1997), American College of Surgeons, Chicago
5. Aprahamian C., Gessert G., Bandyk D.F., et al. MAST-associated compartment syndrome (MACS): a review. J Trauma 29 (1989) 549-555
6. Armand R., and Hess J.R. Treating coagulopathy in trauma patients. Transf Med Rev 17 (2003) 223-231
7. Athanasiou T., Krasopoulos G., Nambiar P., et al. Emergency thoracotomy in the pre-hospital setting: a procedure requiring clarification. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 26 (2004) 377-386
8. Balogh Z., Caldwell E., Heetveld M., et al. Institutional practice guidelines on management of pelvic fracture-related haemodynamic instability: do they make a difference?. J Trauma 58 (2005) 778-782
9. Barkana Y., Stein M., Maor R., et al. Prehospital blood transfusion in prolonged evacuation. J Trauma 46 (1999) 176-180
10. Baron B.J., Dutton R.P., Zehtabchi S., et al. Sublingual capnometry for rapid determination of the severity of haemorrhagic shock. J Trauma 62 (2007) 120-124
11. Basic and advanced prehospital trauma life support. 4th ed. (1994), Mosby ISBN 0-8151-4568-1
12. Bernhard M., Becker T.K., Nowe T., et al. Introduction of a treatment algorithm can improve the early management of emergency patients in the resuscitation room. Resuscitation 73 (2007) 362-373
13. Bickell W.H., Bruttig S.P., and Wade C.E. Haemodynamic response to abdominal aortotomy in the anesthetized swine. Circ Shock 28 (1989) 321-332
14. Bickell W.H., Wall Jr. M.J., Pepe P.E., et al. Immediate versus delayed fluid resuscitation for hypotensive patients with penetrating torso injuries. N Engl J Med 331 (1994) 1105-1109
15. Bode P.J., Edwards M.J., Kruit M.C., and van Vugt A.B. Sonography in a clinical algorithm for early evaluation of 1671 patients with blunt abdominal trauma. Am J Roentgenol 172 (1999) 905-911
16. Boffard K.D., Riou B., Warren B., et al. NovoSeven Trauma Study Group. Recombinant factor VIIa as adjunctive therapy for bleeding control in severely injured trauma patients: two parallel randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trials. J Trauma 59 (2005) 8-15
17. Brohi K., Cohen M.J., Ganter M.T., et al. Acute traumatic coagulopathy: initiated by hypoperfusion: modulated through the protein C pathway?. Ann Surg 245 (2007) 812-818
18. Brohi K., Singh J., Heron M., and Coats T. Acute traumatic coagulopathy. J Trauma 54 (2003) 1127-1130
19. Bynoe R.P., Kerwin A.J., Parker III H.H., et al. Maxillofacial injuries and life-threatening haemorrhage: treatment with transcatheter arterial embolization. J Trauma 55 (2003) 74-79
20. Calkins M.D., Fitzgerald G., Bentley T.B., and Burris D. Intraosseous infusion devices: a comparison for potential use in special operations. J Trauma 48 (2000) 1068-1074
21. Chang F.C., Harrison P.B., Beech R.R., and Helmer S.D. PASG: does it help in the management of traumatic shock?. J Trauma 39 (1995) 453-456
22. Cinat M.E., Wallace W.C., Nastanski F., et al. Improved survival following massive transfusion in patients who have undergone trauma. Arch Surg 134 (1999) 964-968
23. Clarke J.R., Trooskin S.Z., Doshi P.J., et al. Time to laparotomy for intra-abdominal bleeding from trauma does affect survival for delays up to 90 min. J Trauma 52 (2002) 420-425
24. Coats T., Roberts I., and Shakur H. Antifibrinolytic drugs for acute traumatic injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4 (2004) CD004896
25. Coats T.J., Smith J.E., Lockey D., and Russell M. Early increases in blood lactate following injury. J R Army Med Corps 148 (2002) 140-143
26. Contostavlos D.L. Exsanguination from impact head trauma; the explanation for the "empty heart" sign. Forensic Sci Int 95 (1998) 201-212
27. Cornejo C.J., Vaezy S., Jurkovich G.J., et al. High-intensity ultrasound treatment of blunt abdominal solid organ injury: an animal model. J Trauma 57 (2004) 152-156
28. Cothren C.C., Osborn P.M., Moore E.E., et al. Preperitonal pelvic packing for haemodynamically unstable pelvic fractures: a paradigm shift. J Trauma 62 (2007) 834-839
29. Dalton A.M. Use of blood transfusions by helicopter emergency medical services: is it safe?. Injury 24 (1993) 509-510
30. Davis J.W., Davis I.C., Bennink L.D., et al. Are automated blood pressure measurements accurate in trauma patients?. J Trauma 55 (2003) 860-863
31. Dickinson K., and Roberts I. Medical anti-shock trousers (pneumatic anti-shock garments) for circulatory support in patients with trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 (2000) CD001856
32. Dries D.J. Hypotensive resuscitation. Shock 6 (1996) 311-316
33. Dutton R.P. Recombinant activated factor VII for trauma patients. Transf Altern Transf Med 8 (2006) 20-26
34. Eastridge B.J. Butt binder. J Trauma 62 (2007) S32
35. ® (2003), European Resuscitation Council. 90-76934-12-6
36. Farahmand N., Sirlin C.B., Brown M.A., et al. Hypotensive patients with blunt abdominal trauma: performance of screening US. Radiology 235 (2005) 436-443
37. Fernandez L., McKenney M.G., McKenney K.L., et al. Ultrasound in blunt abdominal trauma. J Trauma 45 (1998) 841-848
38. Frascone R.J., Jensen J.P., Kaye K., and Salzman J.G. Consecutive field trials using two different intraosseous devices. Prehosp Emerg Care 11 (2007) 164-171
39. Fries D., Haas T., Salchner V., et al. Management of coagulation after multiple trauma. Anaesthesist 54 (2005) 137-144
40. Frischhut B., and Schobersberger W. The effects of perioperatively administered colloids and crystalloids on primary platelet-mediated haemostasis and clot formation. Anesth Analg 95 (2002) 858-865
41. Gänsslen A., Giannoudis P., and Pape H.C. Haemorrhage in pelvic fracture: who needs angiography?. Curr Opin Crit Care 9 (2003) 515-523
42. Geeraedts Jr. L.M., Demiral H., Schaap N.P., et al. Blind transfusion of blood products in exsanguinating trauma patients. Resuscitation 73 (2007) 382-388
43. Geeraedts Jr. L.M., Kamphuisen P.W., Kaasjager H.A., et al. The role of recombinant factor VIIa in the treatment of life-threatening haemorrhage in blunt trauma. Injury 36 (2005) 495-500
44. Gentilello L.M., Cobean R.A., Offner P.J., et al. Continuous arteriovenous rewarming: rapid reversal of hypothermia in critically ill patients. J Trauma 32 (1992) 316-325
45. Gentilello L.M., and Rifley W.J. Continuous arteriovenous rewarming: report of a new technique for treating hypothermia. J Trauma 31 (1991) 1151-1154
46. Giannoudis P.V., and Pape H.C. Damage control orthopaedics in unstable pelvic ring injuries. Injury 35 (2004) 671-677
47. Gonzalez E.A., Moore F.A., Holcomb J.B., et al. Fresh frozen plasma should be given earlier to patients requiring massive transfusion. J Trauma 62 (2007) 112-119
48. Gould S.A., Moore E.E., Hoyt D.B., et al. The first randomized trial of human polymerized haemoglobin as a blood substitute in acute trauma and emergent surgery. J Am Coll Surg 187 (1998) 113-120
49. Gould S.A., Moore E.E., Hoyt D.B., et al. The life-sustaining capacity of human polymerized haemoglobin when red cells might be unavailable. J Am Coll Surg 195 (2002) 445-452
50. Gould S.A., Moore E.E., Moore F.A., et al. Clinical utility of human polymerized haemoglobin as a blood substitute after acute trauma and urgent surgery. J Trauma 43 (1997) 325-331
51. Haan J.M., Bochicchio G.V., Kramer N., and Scalea T.M. Nonoperative management of blunt splenic injury: a 5-year experience. J Trauma 58 (2005) 492-498
52. Hagiwara A., Murata A., Matsuda T., et al. The efficacy and limitations of transarterial embolization for severe hepatic injury. J Trauma 52 (2002) 1091-1096
53. Hagiwara A., Murata A., Matsuda T., et al. The usefulness of transcatheter arterial embolization for patients with blunt polytrauma showing transient response to fluid resuscitation. J Trauma 57 (2004) 271-276
54. Hardy J.F., De Moerloose P., and Samama M. Groupe d'intérêt en Hémostase Périopératoire Massive transfusion and coagulopathy: pathophysiology and implications for clinical management. Can J Anaesth 51 (2004) 293-310
55. Helling T.S., Nelson P.W., Shook J.W., et al. The presence of in-house attending trauma surgeons does not improve management or outcome of critically injured patients. J Trauma 55 (2003) 20-25
56. Hilbert P., zur Nieden K., Hofmann G.O., et al. New aspects in the emergency room management of critically injured patients: a multi-slice CT-oriented care algorithm. Injury 38 (2007) 552-558
57. Holcomb J.B. Damage control resuscitation. J Trauma 62 (2007) S36-S37
58. Howes D.W., Stratford A., Stirling M., et al. Administration of recombinant factor VIIa decreases blood loss after blunt trauma in noncoagulopathic pigs. J Trauma 62 (2007) 311-315
59. http://www.surgeons.org/Content/NavigationMenu/BasicSurgicalTrainingandSkills/SkillsCourses/EarlyManagementofSevereTraumaEMST/default.htm.
60. Hunt P.A., Greaves I., and Owens W.A. Emergency thoracotomy in thoracic trauma-a review. Injury 37 (2006) 1-19
61. Hutt J., and Wallis L. Blood products in trauma resuscitation. J R Army Med Corps 152 (2006) 121-127
62. Innerhofer P., Fries D., Margreiter J., et al. The effects of perioperatively administered colloids and crystalloids on primary platelet-mediated hemostasis and clot formation. Anesth Analg 95 (2002) 858-865
63. Johnson S.B. Operative approaches for traumatic thoracic aortic injury: immediate versus delayed therapy. J Trauma 62 (2007) S24-S25
64. Johnston T.D., Chen Y., and Reed II R.L. Functional equivalence of hypothermia to specific clotting factor deficiencies. J Trauma 37 (1994) 413-417
65. Kaufmann C.R., Dwyer K.M., Crews J.D., et al. Usefulness of thrombelastography in assessment of trauma patient coagulation. J Trauma 42 (1997) 716-720
66. Kauvar D.S., Lefering R., and Wade C.E. Impact of haemorrhage on trauma outcome: an overview of epidemiology, clinical presentations, and therapeutic considerations. J Trauma 60 (2006) S3-11
67. Kenet G., Walden R., Eldad A., and Martinowitz U. Treatment of traumatic bleeding with recombinant factor VIIa. Lancet 354 (1999) 1879
68. Ketchum L., Hess J.R., and Hiippala S. Indications for early fresh frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate, and platelet transfusion in trauma. J Trauma 60 (2006) S51-S58
69. Kheirabadi B.S., Sieber J., Bukhari T., et al. High-pressure fibrin sealant foam: an effective haemostatic agent for treating severe parenchymal haemorrhage. J Surg Res 144 (2008) 145-150
70. Khetarpal S., Steinbrunn B.S., McGonigal M.D., et al. Trauma faculty and trauma team activation: impact on trauma system function and patient outcome. J Trauma 47 (1999) 576-581
71. Kramer G.C. Hypertonic resuscitation: physiologic mechanisms and recommendations for trauma care. J Trauma 54 (2003) S89-99
72. Krausz M.M. Fluid resuscitation strategies in the Israeli army. J Trauma 54 (2003) S39-42
73. Kreimeier U., and Messmer K. Small-volume resuscitation: from experimental evidence to clinical routine. Advantages and disadvantages of hypertonic solutions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 46 (2002) 625-638
74. Kuncir E.J., and Velmahos G.C. Diagnostic peritoneal aspiration-the foster child of DPL: a prospective observational study. Int J Surg 5 (2007) 167-171
75. Lakstein D., Blumenfeld A., Sokolov T., et al. Tourniquets for haemorrhage control on the battlefield: a 4-year accumulated experience. J Trauma 54 (2003) S221-S225
76. Lavery R.F., Livingston D.H., Tortella B.J., et al. The utility of venous lactate to triage injured patients in the trauma center. J Am Coll Surg 190 (2000) 656-664
77. Lettinga-van de Poll T., Schurink G.W., De Haan M.W., et al. Endovascular treatment of traumatic rupture of the thoracic aorta. Br J Surg 94 (2007) 525-533
78. Malone D.L., Hess J.R., and Fingerhut A. Massive transfusion practices around the globe and a suggestion for a common massive transfusion protocol. J Trauma 60 (2006) S91-S96
79. ®) (2003), Arnold Publishers, London ISBN 00340809256
80. Martinowitz U., and Michaelson M. The Israeli Multidisciplinary rFVIIa Task Force. Guidelines for the use of recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) in uncontrolled bleeding: a report by the Israeli Multidisciplinary rFVIIa Task Force. J Thromb Haemost 3 (2005) 640-648
81. de Moya M.A., and Cohn S.M. Comment on "Sublingual capnometry for rapid determination of the severity of haemorrhagic shock". J Trauma 62 (2007) 1536-1537
82. Naimer S.A., Anat N., and Katif G. Rescue team. Evaluation of techniques for treating the bleeding wound. Injury 35 (2004) 974-979
83. Nolan J. Fluid resuscitation for the trauma patient. Resuscitation 48 (2001) 57-69
84. Patton K., Funk D.L., McErlean M., and Bartfield J.M. Accuracy of estimation of external blood loss by EMS personnel. J Trauma 50 (2001) 914-916
85. Peden M., McGee K., and Krug E. Injury: a leading cause of the global burden of disease, 2000 (2002), World Health Organization, Geneva
86. ® (1997), American Heart Association. 0-87493-619-5
87. Perel P., and Roberts I. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4 (2007) CD000567
88. Perkins J.G., Schreiber M.A., Wade C.E., and Holcomb J.B. Early versus late recombinant factor VIIa in combat trauma patients requiring massive transfusion. J Trauma 62 (2007) 1095-1099
89. Pratesi C., Dorigo W., Troisi N., et al. Acute traumatic rupture of the descending thoracic aorta: endovascular treatment. Am J Surg 192 (2006) 291-295
90. Pursifull N.F., Morris M.S., Harris R.A., and Morey A.F. Damage control management of experimental grade 5 renal injuries: further evaluation of FloSeal gelatin matrix. J Trauma 60 (2006) 346-350
91. Pusateri A.E., Holcomb J.B., Kheirabadi B.S., et al. Making sense of the preclinical literature on advanced haemostatic products. J Trauma 60 (2006) 674-682
92. Reddy V.S. Endovascular approaches for traumatic thoracic aortic injury: immediate versus delayed therapy. J Trauma 62 (2007) S23
93. Repine T.B., Perkins J.G., Kauvar D.S., and Blackborne L. The use of fresh whole blood in massive transfusion. J Trauma 60 (2006) S59-69
94. Revell M., Greaves I., and Porter K. Endpoints for fluid resuscitation in haemorrhagic shock. J Trauma 54 (2003) S63-S67
95. Roberts I. The CRASH-2 trial of an antifibrinolytic agent in traumatic haemorrhage: an international collaboration. Indian J Med Res 125 (2007) 5-7
96. Rotondo M.F., Schwab C.W., McGonigal M.D., et al. Damage control: an approach for improved survival in exsanguinating penetrating abdominal injury. J Trauma 35 (1993) 375-382
97. Sakamoto T., Yagi K., Hiraide A., et al. Transcatheter embolization in the treatment of massive bleeding due to maxillofacial injury. J Trauma 28 (1988) 840-843
98. Sampalis J.S., Tamim H., Denis R., et al. Ineffectiveness of on-site intravenous lines: is prehospital time the culprit?. J Trauma 43 (1997) 608-615
99. Sauaia A., Moore F.A., Moore E.E., et al. Epidemiology of trauma deaths: a reassessment. J Trauma 38 (1995) 185-193
100. Schexneider K.I. Fibrin sealants in surgical or traumatic haemorrhage. Curr Opin Haematol 11 (2004) 323-326
101. Shackford S.R., Mackersie R.C., Holbrook T.L., et al. The epidemiology of traumatic death. A population-based analysis. Arch Surg 128 (1993) 571-575
102. Shapiro M.B., Jenkins D.H., Schwab C.W., and Rotondo M.F. Damage control: collective review. J Trauma 49 (2000) 969-978
103. Sheppard F.R., Cothren C.C., Moore E.E., et al. Emergency department resuscitative thoracotomy for nontorso injuries. Surgery 139 (2006) 574-576
104. Søreide E., and Deakin C.D. Pre-hospital fluid therapy in the critically injured patient-a clinical update. Injury 36 9 (2005) 1001-1010
105. Stacey M.J., Rampaul R.S., Rengaragan A., et al. Use of FloSeal matrix haemostatic agent in partial splenectomy after penetrating trauma. J Trauma (2007) [Epub ahead of print]
106. Starnes B.W., Beekley A.C., Sebesta J.A., et al. Extremity vascular injuries on the battlefield: tips for surgeons deploying to war. J Trauma 60 (2006) 432-442
107. Steele J.T., Hoyt D.B., Simons R.K., et al. Is operating room resuscitation a way to save time?. Am J Surg 174 (1997) 683-687
108. Stern S.A., Dronen S.C., Birrer P., and Wang X. Effect of blood pressure on haemorrhage volume and survival in a near-fatal haemorrhage model incorporating a vascular injury. Ann Emerg Med 22 (1993) 155-163
109. Stewart R.M., Myers J.G., Dent D.L., et al. Seven hundred fifty-three consecutive deaths in a level I trauma center: the argument for injury prevention. J Trauma 54 (2003) 66-70
110. Stollings J.L., and Oyen L.J. Oxygen therapeutics: oxygen delivery without blood. Pharmacotherapy 26 (2006) 1453-1464
111. The Liverpool Hospital trauma manual, 6th ed. Sydney, Australia: Liverpool Hospital, ISBN 1-74079-0278.
112. Thompson R., and Greaves I. Hypertonic saline-hydroxyethyl starch in trauma resuscitation. J R Army Med Corps 152 (2006) 6-12
113. Tien H.C., Spencer F., Tremblay L.N., et al. Preventable deaths from haemorrhage at a level I Canadian trauma center. J Trauma 62 (2007) 142-146
114. Tötterman A., Madsen J.E., Skaga N.O., and Røise O. Extraperitoneal pelvic packing: a salvage procedure to control massive traumatic pelvic haemorrhage. J Trauma 62 (2007) 843-852
115. Tsuei B.J., and Kearney P.A. Hypothermia in the trauma patient. Injury 35 (2004) 7-15
116. van Vugt A.B., and van Kampen A. An unstable pelvic ring. The killing fracture. J Bone Joint Surg Br 88 (2006) 427-433
117. Vaslef S.N., Knudsen N.W., Neligan P.J., and Sebastian M.W. Massive transfusion exceeding 50 units of blood products in trauma patients. J Trauma 53 (2002) 291-295
118. Velmahos G.C., Spaniolas K., Duggan M., et al. Abdominal insufflation for control of bleeding after severe splenic injury. J Trauma 63 (2007) 285-288
119. Wade C.E., Grady J.J., Kramer G.C., et al. Individual patient cohort analysis of the efficacy of hypertonic saline/dextran in patients with traumatic brain injury and hypotension. J Trauma 42 (1997) S61-S65
120. Wade C.E., Grady J.J., and Kramer G.C. Efficacy of hypertonic saline dextran fluid resuscitation for patients with hypotension from penetrating trauma. J Trauma 54 (2003) S144-S148
121. Walcher F., Weinlich M., Conrad G., et al. Prehospital ultrasound imaging improves management of abdominal trauma. Br J Surg 93 (2006) 238-242
122. Walcher F., Weinlich M., Conrad G., et al. Successful roadside resuscitative thoracotomy: case report and literature review. J Trauma 36 (1994) 131-134
123. Watts D.D., Trask A., Soeken K., et al. Hypothermic coagulopathy in trauma: effect of varying levels of hypothermia on enzyme speed, platelet function, and fibrinolytic activity. J Trauma 44 (1998) 846-854
124. Wedmore I., McManus J.G., Pusateri A.E., and Holcomb J.B. A special report on the chitosan-based haemostatic dressing: experience in current combat operations. J Trauma 60 (2006) 655-658
125. Wilson M., Davis D.P., and Coimbra R. Diagnosis and monitoring of haemorrhagic shock during the initial resuscitation of multiple trauma patients: a review. J Emerg Med 24 (2003) 413-422