Bacterial infections of the oral mucosa

Periodontology 2000

Volumn 49, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 13-38

  Dahlén, Gunnar ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

AGE; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CHRONIC DISEASE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; HUMAN; MICROBIOLOGY; MOUTH DISEASE; MOUTH MUCOSA; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION;

AGE FACTORS; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CHRONIC DISEASE; DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMANS; MOUTH DISEASES; MOUTH MUCOSA; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS;

EID: 57849158271     PISSN: 09066713     EISSN: 16000757     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.2008.00295.x     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol 2005 : 43 : 5721 5732.
2. Akhoni H, Rahimi AR. Haemophilus aphrophilus endocarditis after tongue piercing. Emerg Infect Dis 2002 : 8 : 850 851.
3. Ali RW, Bakken V, Nilsen R, Skaug N. Comparative detection frequency of 6 putative periodontal pathogens in Sudanese and Norwegian adult periodontitis patients. J Periodontol 1994 : 65 : 1046 1052.
4. Almståhl A, Wikström M, Fagerberg-Mohlin B. Microflora in oral ecosystems in subjects with radiation-induced hyposalivation. Oral Dis 2008 : 14 : 541 549.
5. Almståhl A, Wikström M. Microflora in oral ecosystems in subjects with hyposalivation due to medicines or of unknown origin. Oral Health Prev Dent 2005 : 3 : 67 76.
6. Almståhl A, Wikström M, Kroneld U. Microflora in oral ecosystems in primary Sjögren's syndrome. J Rheumatol 2001 : 28 : 1007 1013.
7. Amir J, Yaqupsky P. Invasive Kingella kingae infection associated with stomatitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988 : 7 : 757 758.
8. Anil S, Ellepola AN, Samaranayake LP, Beena VT. Tuberculous ulcer of the tongue as presenting feature of pulmonary tuberculosis and HIV infection. Gen Dent 2000 : 48 : 458 461.
9. Ayars GH, Altman LC, Fretwell MD. Effect of decreased salivation and pH on the adherence of Klebsiella species to human buccal epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1982 : 38 : 179 182.
10. Baena-Monroy T, Moreno-Maldonado V, Franco-Martinez F, Aldape-Barrios B, Quindós G, Sánchez-Vargas LO. Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans colonization in patients wearing dental prosthesis. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2005 : 10 (Suppl 1 E27 E29.
11. Bahrani-Mougeot FK, Paster BJ, Coleman S, Barbuto S, Brennan MT, Noll J, Kennedy T, Fox PC, Lockhart PB. Molecular analysis of oral and respiratory bacterial species associated with ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 2007 : 45 : 1588 1593.
12. Balmelli C, Günthard HF. Gonococcal tonsillar infection - a case report and literature review. Infection 2003 : 31 : 362 365.
13. Bassetti S, Wasmer S, Hasler P, Vogt T, Nogarth D, Frel R, Widmer AF. Staphylococcus aureus in patients with rheumatoid arthritis under conventional and anti-tumor necrosis factor alfa treatment. J Rheumatol 2005 : 32 : 2125 2129.
14. Bauman U, Fischer JJ, Gudowius P, Lingner M, Herrmann S, Tümmler B, von der Hardt H. Buccal adherence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with cystic fibrosis under long-term therapy with azithromycin. Infect 2001 : 29 : 7 11.
15. Baydas B, Uslu H, Yavuz I, Ceylan I, Dagsuyu IM. Effect of chronic nail-biting habit on the oral carriage of Enterobacteriaceae. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2007 : 22 : 1 4.
16. Berdal JE, Bjørnholt J, Blomfeldt A, Smith-Erichsen N, Bukholm G. Pattern and dynamics of airway colonisation in mechanically-ventilated patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007 : 13 : 476 480.
17. Bergman OJ. Alterations in oral microflora and pathogenesis of acute oral infections during remission-induction therapy in patients with acute myeloid leukaemia. Scand J Infect Dis 1991 : 23 : 355 366.
18. Bergman OJ. Oral infections and fever in immuncompromised patients with hematologic malignancies. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1989 : 8 : 207 213.
19. Bergman OJ. Oral infections and fever in immunocompromised patients with hematologic malignancies. J Clin Microbiol 1988 : 26 : 2105 2109.
20. Cakan A, Mutlu Z, Ozsöz A, Erbaycu AE, Unal T, Koyuncu BO. Tuberculosis of oral mucosa. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 2001 : 56 : 315 317.
21. Campbell J, McGowan DA, MacFarlane TW. The prevalence of enterococci in the dental plaque of chronic hospital patients. Br J Oral Surg 1983 : 21 : 171 174.
22. Chavez de Paz LE, Dahlén G, Molander A, Möller Å, Bergenholtz G. Bacteria recovered from teeth with apical periodontitis after antimicrobial endodontic treatment. Int Endod J 2003 : 36 : 500 506.
23. Colombo AP, Teles RP, Torres MC, Souto R, Rosalém WJ, Mendes MC, Uzeda M. Subgingival microbiota of Brazilian subjects with untreated chronic periodontitis. J Periodontol 2002 : 73 : 360 369.
24. Dahlén G, Samuelsson W, Molander A, Reit C. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility of enterococci isolated from the root canal. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2000 : 15 : 309 312.
25. Dahlén G, Wikström M. Occurrence of enterics, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida in periodontitis among Swedish adults. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1995 : 10 : 42 46.
26. Dahlén G, Manji F, Baelum V, Fejerskov O. Black-pigmented Bacteroides species and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans in subgingival plaque of adult Kenyans. J Clin Periodontol 1989 : 16 : 305 310.
27. Dahlén G, Linde A, Möller ÅJR, Öhman A. A retrospective study of microbiological samples from oral mucosal lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1982 : 53 : 250 255.
28. Didilescu AC, Skaug N, Marica C, Didilescu C. Respiratory pathogens in dental plaque of hospitalized patients with chronic lung diseases. Clin Oral Investig 2005 : 9 : 141 147.
29. Donaldson A, McKenzie D, Riggio M, Hodge P, Rolph H, Flanagan A, Bagg J. Microbiological culture analysis of the tongue anaerobic microflora in subjects with and without halitosis. Oral Dis 2005 : 11 (Suppl. 1 61 63.
30. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 24th edn. Philadelphia : Saunders, 1965.
31. Dreizen S, McCredie KB, Bodey GP, Keating MJ. Quantitative analysis of the oral complications of antileukemia chemotherapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1986 : 62 : 650 653.
32. Dreizen S, Bodey GP, Valdivieso M. Chemotherapy-associated oral infections in adults with solid tumors. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1983 : 55 : 113 120.
33. Duarte EC, da Silva LM, Naves MD, do Carmo MA, de Aguiar MC. Primary syphilis of oral mucosa: case report of an unusual manifestation. Quintessence Int 2004 : 35 : 728 730.
34. Eliasson L, Dahlén G, Heyden G, Möller Å. The predominant microflora of the palatal mucosa in an elderly island population. Acta Odontol Scand 1992 : 50 : 163 169.
35. El-Solh AA, Pietrantoni C, Bhat A, Okada M, Zambon J, Aquilina A, Berbary E. Colonization of dental plaques: a reservoir of respiratory pathogens for hospital-acquired pneumonia in institutionalized elders. Chest 2004 : 126 : 1401 1403.
36. Engström B. The significance of enterococci in root canal treatment. Odontol Revy 1964 : 15 : 87 106.
37. Epstein JB. Mucositis in cancer patients and immunosuppressed host. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2007 : 21 : 503 522.
38. Faergemann J, Dahlén G. Facial skin infections. Periodontol 2000 2009 : 49 : 194 209.
39. Fernandes-Naglik L, Downes J, Shirlaw P, Wilson R, Challacombe SJ, Kemp GK, Wade WG. The clinical and microbial effects of a novel acidified sodium chlorite mouthrinse on oral bacterial mucosal infections. Oral Dis 2001 : 7 : 276 280.
40. Fisher BM, Lamey PJ, Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, Frier BM. Carriage of Candida species in the oral cavity in diabetic patients:relationship to glycaemic control. J Oral Pathol 1987 : 16 : 282 284.
41. Fortis AA, Lianouu PE, Papavassilliou JT. Adherence of Staphyloccocus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Candida albicans to human buccal epithelial cells, from healthy persons and IV carriers, under the influence of Broncho Vaxom in vitro and ascorbic acid in vivo. APMIS 1998 : 106 : 441 448.
42. Fransson C, Lekholm U, Jemt T, Berglundh T. Prevalence of subjects with progressive bone loss at implants. Clin Oral Implant Res 2005 : 16 : 440 446.
43. Garfunkel AA, Tager N, Chausu S, Chausu G, Haze C, Galili D. Oral complications in bone marrow transplantation patients: recent advances. Isr J Med Sci 1994 : 30 : 120 124.
44. Gibson J, Wray D, Bagg J. Oral staphyloccocal mucositis: a new clinical entity in orofacial granulomatosis and Crohn's disease. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2000 : 89 : 171 176.
45. Gibson J, Lamey PJ, Lewis M, Frier B. Oral manifestation of previously undiagnosed non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. J Oral Pathol Med 1990 : 19 : 284 287.
46. Gold OG, Jordan HV, van Houte J. The prevalence of enterococci in the human mouth and their pathogenicity in animal models. Arch oral Biol 1975 : 20 : 473 477.
47. Greenberg MS, Cohen G. Oral infection in immunosuppressed renal transplant patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1977 : 43 : 879 885.
48. Guggenheimer J, Moore PA, Rossie K, Myers D, Mongellizzo MB, Block HM, Weyant R, Orchard T. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and oral soft tissue pathologies. I. Prevalence and characteristics of non-candidal lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2000 : 89 : 563 569.
49. Hamasuna R, Hoshina S, Imau H, Jensen JS, Osada Y. Usefulness of oral wash specimens for detecting Chlamydia trachomatis from high-risk groups in Japan. Int J Urol 2007 : 14 : 473 475.
50. Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Effect of phenoximethylpenicillin and clindamycin on the oral, throat and faecal microflora of man. Scand J Infect Dis 1979 : 11 : 233 242.
51. Helouvo H, Hakkarainen K, Paunio K. Changes in the prevalence of subgingival enteric rods, staphylococci and yeasts after treatment with penicillin and erythromycin. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1993 : 8 : 75 79.
52. Holt RD, Wilson M, Musa S. Mycoplasmas in plaque and saliva of children and their relationship to gingivitis. J Periodontol 1995 : 66 : 97 101.
53. Ishikawa A, Yoneyama T, Hirota K, Miyake Y, Miyatake K. Professional oral health care reduces the number of oropharyngeal bacteria. J Dent Res 2006 : 87 : 594 598.
54. Jacobson JJ, Patel B, Asher G, Wooliscroft JO, Schaberg D. Oral Staphylococcus in older subjects with rheumatoid arthritis. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997 : 45 : 590 593.
55. Jackson MS, Bagg J, Gupta MN, Surrock RD. Oral carriage of staphylococci in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 1999 : 38 : 572 575.
56. Jainkittivong A, Aneksuk V, Langlais RP. Oral mucosal conditions in elderly dental patients. Oral Dis 2002 : 8 : 218 223.
57. Jensen SB, Mouridsen HT, Bergmann OJ, Reibel J, Brunner N, Nauntofte B. Oral mucosal lesions, microbial changes, and taste disturbances induced by adjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Radiol Endod 2008 : 106 : 217 226.
58. Jobbins J, Bagg J, Parsons K, Finlay I, Addy M, Newcombe RG. Oral carriage of yeasts, coliforms and staphylococci in patients with advanced malignant disease. J Oral Pathol Med 1992 : 21 : 305 308.
59. Jorge Júnior J, deAlmeida OP, Bozzo L, Scully C, Graner E. Oral mucosal health and disease in institutionalized elderly in Brazil. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1991 : 19 : 173 175.
60. Kazor CE, Mitchell PM, Lee AM, Stokes LN, Loesche WJ, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ. Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthy patients. J Clin Microbiol 2003 : 41 : 558 563.
61. Ketai LH, Rypka G. The course of nosocomial oropharyngeal colonization in patients recovering from acute respiratory failure. Chest 1993 : 103 : 1837 1841.
62. Knighton HT. Coagulase-positive staphylococci in oral and nasal areas of dental students: a four-year study. J Dent Res 1965 : 44 : 467 470.
63. Kolokotronis A, Avramidou E, Zaraboukas T, Mandraveli K, Alexiou S, Antoniades D. Oral tuberculosis associated with a treatment with anti-rheumatic drugs. J Oral Pathol Med 2006 : 35 : 123 125.
64. Kuc IM, Samaranayake LP, van Heyst EN. Oral health and microflora in an institutionalised elderly population in Canada. Int Dent J 1999 : 49 : 33 40.
65. Kurrie E, Bhaduri S, Krieger D, Gaus W, Heimpel H, Pflieger H, Arnold R, Vanek E. Risk factors for infections of the oropharynx and the respiratory tract in patients with acute leukemia. J Infect Dis 1981 : 144 : 128 135.
66. Lamey PJ, Darwazeh AM, Frier BM. Oral disorders associated with diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 1992 : 9 : 410 416.
67. Landes CA, Kovács AF. Aspects of oral syphilis. Quintessence Int 2004 : 35 : 723 727.
68. Leibovitz A, Plotnikov G, Habot B, Rosenberg M, Segal R. Pathogenic colonization of oral flora in frail elderly patients fed by nasogastric tube or percutaneous enterogastric tube. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2003 : 58 : 52 55.
69. Leonhardt Å, Renvert S, Dahlén G. Microbial findings at failing implants. Clin Oral Implant Res 1999 : 10 : 339 345.
70. Leung WK, Yau JY, Chaung BP, Jin LJ, Zee KY, Lo EC, Samaranayake LP, Corbet EF. Oral colonisation by aerobic and facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rods and yeast in Tibetans living in Lhasa. Arch Oral Biol 2003 : 48 : 117 123.
71. Leung WK, Jin LJ, Yam WC, Samaranayake LP. Oral colonization of aerobic and facultatively anaerobic gram-negative rods and cocci in irradiated dentate, xerostomic individuals. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2001 : 16 : 1 9.
72. Limeback H. Implications of oral infections on systemic diseases in the institutionalized elderly with special focus on pneumonia. Ann Periodontol 1998 : 3 : 262 275.
73. Loeffler A, Boag AK, Sung J, Lindsay JA, Guardabassi L, Dalsgaard A, Smith H, Stevens KB, Lloyd DH. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among staff and pets in a small animal referral hospital in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005 : 56 : 692 697.
74. Lucht E, Nord CE. Opportunistic oral infections in patients infected with HIV-1. Rev Med Microbiol 1996 : 7 : 151 163.
75. Lucht E, Teivens A, Berglund O, Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Occurrence of microorganisms in saliva and gingival crevice in HIV-1-infected patients. Microbiol Ecol Health Dis 1990 : 3 : 329 334.
76. MacFarlane TW, Mason DK. Changes in the oral flora in Sjögren's syndrome. J Clin Pathol 1974 : 27 : 416 419.
77. MacFarlane TW. The oral ecology of patients with severe Sjögren's syndrome. Microbios 1984 : 41 : 99 106.
78. Mager DL, Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS. Distribution of selected bacterial species in intraoral surfaces. J Clin Periodontol 2003 : 30 : 644 654.
79. Maheu-Robert LF, Andrian E, Grenier D. Overview of complications secondary to tongue and lip piercing. J Can Dent Assoc 2007 : 73 : 327 331.
80. Main BE, Calman KC, Ferguson MM, Kaye SB, MacFarlane TW, Mairs RJ, Samaranayake LP, Willox J, Welsh J. The effect of cytotoxic therapy on saliva and oral flora. Oral Surg 1984 : 58 : 545 548.
81. Marsh PD, Martin MV. Oral microbiology, 4th edn. Oxford, UK : Wright, 1999.
82. Marsh PD, Percival RS, Challacombe SJ. The influence of denture-wearing and age on the oral microflora. J Dent Res 1992 : 71 : 1374 1381.
83. Martins MD, Russo MP, Lemos JB, Fernandes KP, Bussadori SK, Correa CT, Martins MA. Orofacial lesions in treated southeast leprosy patients: a cross-sectional study. Oral Dis 2007 : 13 : 270 273.
84. Maschmeyer G, Haas A. The epidemiology and treatment of infections in cancer patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008 : 31 : 193 197.
85. Meurman JH. Probiotics: Do they have a role in oral medicine and dentistry? Eur J Oral Sci 2005 : 113 : 188 196.
86. Minah GE, Rednor JL, Peterson DE, Overholser CD, Depaola LG, Suzuki JB. Oral succession of Gram-negative bacilli in myelosuppressed cancer patients. J Clin Microbiol 1986 : 24 : 210 213.
87. Miziara ID. Tuberculosis affecting the oral cavity in Brazilian HIV-infected patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2005 : 100 : 179 182.
88. Mobbs KJ, van Saene HK, Sunderland D, Davies PD. Oropharyngeal gram-negative bacillary carriage in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: relation to severity of disease. Respir Med 1999 : 93 : 540 545.
89. Mobbs KJ, van Saene HKF, Sunderland D, Davies PDO. Oropharyngeal Gram-negative bacillary carriage. Chest 1999 : 115 : 1570 1575.
90. Molander A, Reit C, Dahlén G, Kvist T. Microbiological status of root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis. Int Endod J 1998 : 31 : 1 7.
91. Moore PA, Guggenheimer J, Orchard T. Burning mouth syndrome and peripheral neuropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 2007 : 21 : 397 402.
92. Moore PA, Guggenheimer J, Etzel KR, Weynant RJ, Orchard T. Type 1 diabetes mellitus, xerostomia and salivary flow rates. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2001 : 92 : 281 291.
93. Napenas JJ, Brennan MT, Bahrani-Mougeot FK, Fox PC, Lockhart PB. Relationship between mucositis and changes in oral microflora during cancer chemotherapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Radiol Endod 2007 : 103 : 48 59.
94. Nevalainen MJ, Närhi TO, Ainamo A. Oral mucosal lesions and oral hygiene habits in home-living elderly. J Oral Rehabil 1997 : 24 : 332 337.
95. Nittayananta W, Chungpanich S. Oral lesions in a group of Thai people with AIDS. Oral Dis 1997 : 3 (Suppl. 1 41 45.
96. Norrby SR. Ecological consequences of broad spectrum versus narrow spectrum antibacterial therapy. Scand J Infect Dis 1986 : 49 (Suppl. 189 195.
97. Ohara-Nemoto Y, Haraga H, Kimura S, Nemoto TK. Occurrence of staphylococci in the oral cavities of healthy adults and nasal oral trafficking of the bacteria. J Med Microbiol 2008 : 57 : 95 99.
98. Ohman SC, Osterberg T, Dahlén G, Landahl S. The prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacteriaceae species, and Candida species and their relation to oral mucosal lesions in a group of 79-year-olds in Göteborg. Acta Odontol Scand 1995 : 53 : 49 54.
99. Oksenhendler E, Gérard L, Fieschi C, Malphettes M, Mouillot G, Jaussaud R, Viallard JF, Gardembas M, Galicier L, Schieinitz N, Suarez F, Soulas-Sprauel P, Hachulla E, Jaccard A, Gardeur A, Théodorou I, Rabian C, Debré P, DEFI Study group. Infections in 252 patients with common variable immunodeficiency. Clin Infect Dis 2008 : 15 : 1547 1554.
100. Pajukoski M, Meurman JH, Halonen P, Sulkava R. Prevalence of subjective dry mouth and burning mouth in hospitalized elderly patients and outpatients in relation to saliva, medication and systemic diseases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2001 : 92 : 641 649.
101. Palmer LB, Albulak K, Fields S, Filkin AM, Simon S, Smaldone GC. Oral clearance and pathogenic oropharyngeal colonization in the elderly. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 : 164 : 464 468.
102. Patton LL, van der Horst C. Oral infections and other manifestations of HIV disease. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999 : 13 : 879 900.
103. Peltola P, Vehkalahti MM, Wuolijoki-Saaristo K. Oral health and treatment needs of the long-term hospitalised elderly. Gerodontology 2004 : 21 : 93 99.
104. Ponte E, Tabaj D, Maglione M, Melato M. Diabetes mellitus and oral disease. Acta Diabetol 2001 : 38 : 57 62.
105. Porter SR, Leao JC. Review article: oral ulcers and its relevance to systemic disorders. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005 : 21 : 295 306.
106. Raghavenderan K, Mylotte JM, Scannapacio FA. Nursing home-associated pneumonia, hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator associated pneumonia: the contribution of dental biofilms and periodontal inflammation. Periodontol 2000 2007 : 44 : 164 177.
107. Rams TE, Feik D, Slots J. Staphylococci in human periodontal disease. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1990 : 5 : 29 32.
108. Razavi A, Gmur R, Imfeld T, Zehnder M. Recovery of Enterococcus faecalis from cheese in the oral cavity of healthy subjects. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2007 : 22 : 248 251.
109. Reed SG, Lopatin DE, Foxman B, Burt BA. Oral Chlamydia trachomatis in patients with established periodontitis. Clin Oral Investig 2000 : 4 : 226 232.
110. Reichardt PA. Infections of the oral mucosa. II. Bacterial, mycotic and viral infections. Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir 1999 : 3 : 298 308.
111. Renard KW, Marling-Cason M, Sheehan RG, Mackowiak PA. Effects of cancer chemotherapy on the human aerobic oropharyngeal flora. Infection 1986 : 14 : 237 241.
112. Riggio MP, Lennon A, Rolph HJ, Donaldson A, Maxwell AJ, Bagg J. Molecular identification of bacteria on the tongue dorsum of subjects with or without halitosis. Oral Dis 2008 : 14 : 251 258.
113. Rivera-Hidalgo F, Stanford TW. Oral mucosal lesions caused by infective microorganisms I. Viruses and bacteria. Periodontol 2000 1999 : 21 : 106 124.
114. Ross PW. Quantitative studies on the salivary flora. J Clin Pathol 1971 : 24 : 717 720.
115. Roy KM, Smith A, Sanderson J, Bagg J, Mackenzie D, Jackson MS, Taylor G, McEwen J. Barriers to the use of a diagnostic oral microbiological laboratory by general dental practitioners. Br Dent J 1999 : 186 : 345 347.
116. Rudney JD, Chen R. The vital status of human buccal epithelial cells and the bacteria associated with them. Arch Oral Biol 2006 : 51 : 291 298.
117. Rudney JD, Chen R, Sedewick GJ. Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Tannerella forsythensis are components of a polymicrobial intracellular flora within human buccal cells. J Dent Res 2005 : 84 : 59 63.
118. Rudney JD, Chen R, Zhang G. Streptococci dominate the diverse flora within buccal cells. J Dent Res 2005 : 84 : 1165 1171.
119. Ruescher TJ, Sodeifi A, Scrivani SJ, Kaban LB, Sonis ST. The impact of mucositis on alpha-hemolytic streptococcal infection in patients undergoing autologous bone marrow transplantation for hematologic malignancies. Cancer 1998 : 82 : 2275 2281.
120. Russell SL, Boylan RJ, Kaslick RS, Scannaoieco FA, Katz RY. Respiratory pathogen colonization of the dental plaque of institutionalized elders. Spec Care Dentist 1999 : 19 : 128 134.
121. Sachs AP, van der Waaij D, Groenier KH, Koëter GH, Schiphuis J. Oropharyngeal flora in asthma and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Indigenous oropharyngeal microorganisms in outpatients with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993 : 148 : 1302 1307.
122. Sakamoto H, Sasaki J, Nord CE. Association between bacterial colonization on the tumor, bacterial translocation to the cervical lymph nodes and subsequent postoperative infection in patients with oral cancer. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999 : 5 : 612 616.
123. Sakamoto H, Naito H, Ohta Y, Tanakna R, Maeda N, Sasaki J, Nord CE. Isolation of bacteria from cervical lymph nodes in patients with oral cancer. Arch Oral Biol 1999 : 44 : 789 793.
124. Sällberg M. Oral viral infections of children. Periodontol 2000 2009 : 49 : 87 95.
125. Samaranayake LP, Keung Leung W, Jin L. Oral mucosal fungal infections. Periodontol 2000 2009 : 49 : 39 59.
126. Samaranayake LP, Wilkieson CA, Lamey PJ, MacFarlane TW. Oral disease in elderly in long-term hosptal care. Oral Dis 1995 : 1 : 147 151.
127. Samaranayake LP, Lamb AB, Lamey PJ, MacFarlane TW. Oral carriage of Candida species and coliforms in patients with burning mouth syndrome. J Oral Pathol Med 1989 : 18 : 233 235.
128. Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, Lamey PJ, Ferguson MM. A comparison of oral rinse and imprint sampling techniques for the detection of yeast, coliform and Staphylococcus aureus carriage in the oral cavity. J Oral Pathol 1986 : 15 : 386 388.
129. Samaranayake LP, Calman KC, Fergusin MM, Kaye SB, MacFarlane TW, Main B, Welsh J, Willox J. The oral carriage of yeasts and coliforms in patients on cytotoxic therapy. J Oral Pathol 1984 : 13 : 390 393.
130. Sarifakioglu E, Gunduz C, Gorpelioglu C. Oral mucosa manifestation in 100 pregnant versus non-pregnant patients: an epidemiological observational study. Eur J Dermatol 2006 : 16 : 674 676.
131. Scala A, Checchi L, Montevecchi M, Marini I, Giamberadino MA. Update on burning mouoth syndrome: overview and patient management. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2003 : 14 : 275 291.
132. Scannapecio FA, Bush RB, Paju S. Associations between periodontal disease and risk for nosocomial bacterial pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A systemic review. Ann Periodontol 2003 : 8 : 54 69.
133. Scannapecio FA, Wang B, Shiau HJ. Oral bacteria and respiratory infection: effects on respiratory pathogen adhesion and epithelial cell proinflammatory cytokinase production. Ann Periodontol 2001 : 6 : 78 86.
134. Scannapieco FA, Stewart EM, Mylotte JM. Colonization of dental plaque by respiratory pathogens in medical intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 1992 : 20 : 740 745.
135. Scott CM, Flint SR. Oral syphilis - re-emergence of an old disease with oral manifestations. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2005 : 34 : 58 63.
136. Scully C, Sonis S, Diz PD. Oral mucositis. Oral Dis 2006 : 12 : 229 241.
137. Scully C. Sjögren's syndrome: clinical and laboratory features, immunpathogenesis, and management. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1986 : 62 : 510 523.
138. Schmidt-Westhausen A, Fehrenbach FJ, Reichart PA. Oral Enterobacteriaceeae in patients with HIV infection. J Oral Pathol Med 1990 : 19 : 229 231.
139. Sedgely CM, Lennan SL, Clewell DB. Prevalence, phenotype and genotype of oral enterococci. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2004 : 19 : 95 101.
140. Sedgely CM, Samaranayake LP, Chan JC, Wei SH. A 4-year longitudinal study in the oral prevalence of enteric gram-negative rods and yeasts in Chinese children. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1997 : 12 : 183 188.
141. Sedgely CM, Chu CS, Lo EC, Samaranayake LP. The oral prevalence of aerobic and facultatively anaerobic gram-negative rods and yeasts in semi-recluse human vegetarians. Arch Oral Biol 1996 : 41 : 307 309.
142. Sedgely CM, Samaranayake LP. The oral prevalence of aerobic and facultative anaerobic gram-negative rods and yeasts in Hong Kong Chinese. Arch Oral Biol 1994 : 39 : 459 466.
143. Sheehy EC, Beighton D, Roberts GJ. The oral microbiota of children undergoing liver transplantation. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2000 : 15 : 203 210.
144. Sirén EK, Haapasalo MP, Ranta K, Salmi P, Kerosuo EN. Microbiological findings and clinical treatment procedures in endodontic cases selected for microbiological investigations. Int Endod J 1997 : 30 : 91 95.
145. Slots J. Oral viral infections of adults. Periodontol 2000 2009 : 49 : 60 86.
146. Slots J, Rams TE, Feik D, Taveras HD, Gillespie M. Subgingival microflora of advanced periodontitis in the Dominican Republic. J Periodontol 1991 : 62 : 543 547.
147. Slots J, Feik D, Rams TE. Age and sex relationships of superinfecting microorganisms in periodontitis patients. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1990 : 5 : 305 308.
148. Slots J, Feik D, Rams TE. Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadaceae and Acinetobacter in human periodontitis. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1990 : 5 : 149 154.
149. Slots J, Rams TE, Listgarten MA. Yeasts, enteric rods and pseudomonads in the subgingical flora of severe adult periodontitis. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1988 : 3 : 47 52.
150. Smith AJ, Robertson D, Tang MK, Jackson MS, MacKenzie D, Bagg J. Staphylococcus aureus in the oral cavity: a three-year retrospective analysis of clinical laboratory data. Br Dent J 2003 : 195 : 701 703.
151. Smith AJ, Brewer A, Kirkpatrick P, Jackson MSD, Young J, Watson S, Thakken B. Staphylococcus species in the oral cavity from patients in a regional burns unit. J Hosp Infect 2003 : 55 : 184 189.
152. Smith AJ, Jackson MS, Bagg J. The ecology of Staphylococcus species in the oral cavity. J Med Microbiol 2001 : 50 : 940 946.
153. Smyth CJ, Halpenny MK, Ballagh SJ. Carriage rates of enterococci in the dental plaque of haemodialysis patients in Dublin. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1987 : 25 : 21 33.
154. Souto R, Colombo AP. Prevalence of Enterococcus faecalis in subgingival biofilm and saliva of subjects with chronic periodontal infection. Arch Oral Biol 2008 : 53 : 155 160.
155. Sreebny LM, Yu A, Green A, Valdini A. Xerostomia in diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1992 : 15 : 900 904.
156. Stjernquist-Desatnik A, Orrling A. Pharyngotonsillitis. Periodontol 2000 2009 : 49 : 140 150.
157. Sumi Y, Miura H, Sunakawa M, Michiwaki Y, Sakagami N. Colonization of denture plaque by respiratory pathogens in dependent elderly. Gerodontology 2002 : 19 : 25 29.
158. Sutter VL, Hurst V, Landucci AOJ. Pseudomonads in human saliva. J Dent Res 1966 : 45 : 1800 1803.
159. Sveinbjörnsdóttir S, Gudmundsson S, Briem H. Oropharyngeal colonization in the elderly. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1999 : 10 : 959 963.
160. Sweeney MP, Bagg J, Baxter WP, Aitchison TC. Oral disease in terminally ill cancer patients with xerostomia. Oral Oncol 1998 : 34 : 123 126.
161. Sweeney MP, Bagg J, Fell GS, Yip B. The relationship between micronutrient depletion and oral health in geriatrics. J Oral Pathol Med 1994 : 23 : 168 171.
162. Tada A, Senpuku H, Motoozawa Y, Yoshihara A, Hanada N, Tanzawa H. Association between commensals bacteria and opportunistic pathogens in the dental plaque of elderly individuals. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006 : 12 : 776 781.
163. Tanner A, Lai C-H, Maiden M. Characteristics of Gram-negative species. In : Slots J, Taubman M, editors. Contemporary oral microbiology and immunology. St Louis : Mosby Year Book, Miss, Chapter 19, 1992 : 299 341.
164. Tawara Y, Honma K, Naito Y. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans on denture surfaces. Bull Tokyo Dent Coll 1996 : 37 : 119 128.
165. Terpenning MS. The relationship between infections and oral respiratory diseases; an overview. Ann Periodontol 2001 : 6 : 66 70.
166. Terpenning MS, Bradley SF, Wan JY, Chenoweth CE, Jorgensen KA, Kauffman CA. Colonization and infection with antibiotic-resistant bacteria in a longterm care facility. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994 : 42 : 1062 1069.
167. Terpenning MS, Zervos MJ, Schaberg DR, Kauffman CA. Enterococcal infections: an increasing problem in hospitalized patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1988 : 9 : 457.
168. Thomson WM, Brown RH, Williams SM. Dentures, prosthetic treatment needs, and mucosal health in an institutionalised elderly population. N Z Dent J 1992 : 88 : 51 55.
169. Tronel H, Chaudemanche H, Pechier N, Doutrelant L, Hoen B. Endocarditis due to Nesseria mucosa after tongue piercing. Clin Microbiol Infect 2001 : 7 : 275 276.
170. Tsang CSP, Samaranayake LP. Oral yeasts and coliforms in HIV-infected individuals in Hong Kong, Orale Hefen und coliforme bei HIV-infizierten in Hongkong. Mycoses 2000 : 43 : 303 308.
171. Ulin C, Norinder M, Dahlén G, Reit C, Molander A. Prevalence of oral enterococci among endodontic retreatment patients and dental students. Abstract. Dublin, Ireland : European Society of Endodontics, 2004.
172. Wahlin YB, Granström S, Persson S, Sjöström M. A multivariate study of enterobacteria and pseudomonads in saliva of patients with acute leukemia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1991 : 72 : 300 308.
173. Wahlin YB. Effects of chlorhexidine mouthrinse on oral health in patients with acute leukemia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1989 : 68 : 279 287.
174. Wahlin YB, Matsson L. Oral mucosal lesions in patients with acute leukemia and related disorders during cytotoxic therapy. Scand J Dent Res 1988 : 96 : 128 136.
175. Wahlin YB, Holm AK. Changes in the oral microflora in patients with acute leukemia and related disorders during the period of induction therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1988 : 65 : 411 417.
176. Van Damme PA, van Herpen CM, Meis JE. An adult case of oral infection with Kingella kingae. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004 : 33 : 105 107.
177. Van Overbeek JJ. Gonorrheal infections in the oropharynx. Arch Otolaryngol 1976 : 102 : 94 96.
178. Vassallo C, Ardigò M, Brazelli V, Zecca M, Locatelli F, Alessandrino PE, Lazzarino M, Corona S, Lanzerini P, Benazzo M, Fabbi M, Borrini G. Bartonella-related pseudomembranous papillomatosis of the oral cavity associated with allogeneic bone marrow transplantation and oral graft-versus-host disease. Br J Dermatol 2007 : 157 : 174 178.
179. Watanabe T, Matsuura M, Seto K. Enumeration, isolation, and species identification of mycoplasma in saliva sampled from the normal and pathological human oral cavity and antibody response to an oral mycoplasma (Mycoplasma salivarium). J Clin Microbiol 1986 : 23 : 1034 1038.
180. Weinberg JM, Scheinfeld NS. Cutanous infections in elderly: diagnosis and management. Dermatol Ther 2003 : 16 : 195 205.
181. Williams NB, Forbes MA, Blau E, Eickenberg CF. A study of the simultaneous occurrence of enterococci, lactobacilli, and yeasts in saliva from human beings. J Dent Res 1950 : 29 : 563 570.
182. Wilson M. Microbial inhabitants of humans. Their ecology and role in health and disease. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press, 2005.
183. Von Bulzingslöwen I, Adelberth I, Wold AE, Dahlén G, Jontell M. Oral and intestinal microflora in 5-fluorouracil treated rats, translocation to cervical and mesenteric lymph nodes and effects of probiotic bacteria. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2003 : 18 : 278 284.
184. Yoneyama T, Yoshida M, Ohrui T, Mukiyama H, Okamoto H, Hoshiba K, Ihara S, Yanagisawa S, Ariumi S, Morita T, Mizuno Y, Ohsawa T, Akagawa Y, Hashimoto K, Sasaki H, Oral Care Working Group. Oral care reduces pneumonia in older patients in nursing homes. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002 : 50 : 430 433.
185. Zhu HW, McMillan AS, McGrath C, Li LSW, Samaranayake LP. Oral carriage of yeast and coliforms in stroke sufferers: a prospective longitudinal study. Oral Dis 2008 : 14 : 60 66.