The psychology of confessions

Annual Review of Law and Social Science

Volumn 4, Issue , 2008, Pages 193-217

  Kassin, Saul M ^a  

^a JOHN JAY COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Lie detection; Miranda; Police interrogations; Wrongful convictions

Indexed keywords

EID: 57649198438     PISSN: 15503585     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.4.110707.172410     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. Am. Med. Assoc., et al. 2004. Brief amici curiae submitted in Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005)
2. Anderson CA, Lepper MR, Ross L. 1980. Perseverance of social theories: the role of explanation in the persistence of discredited information. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 39:1037-49
3. Appelbaum KL, Appelbaum PS. 1994. Criminal justice-related competencies in defendants with mental retardation. J. Psychiatry Law 22:483-503
4. Asch S. 1956. Studies of independence and conformity: a minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychol. Monogr. 70:416
5. Baldwin J. 1993. Police interview techniques: establishing truth or proof? Br. J. Criminol. 33:325-52
6. Billings FJ, Taylor T, Burns J, Corey DL, Garven S, Wood JM. 2007. Can reinforcement induce children to falsely incriminate themselves? Law Hum. Behav. 31:125-39
7. Blair JP. 2005. A test of the unusual false confession perspective using cases of proven false confessions. Crim. Law Bull. 41:127-44
8. Bond CF, DePaulo BM. 2006. Accuracy of deception judgments. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10:214-34
9. Bond CF, Uysal A. 2007. On lie detection "wizards." Law Hum. Behav. 31:109-15
10. Bond GD. 2007. Deception detection expertise. Law Hum. Behav. 31:109-15
11. Brown MR. 1926. Legal Psychology. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill
12. Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278 (1936)
13. Brown WA. 1998. The placebo effect. Sci. Am. 278:90-95
14. Bruck M, Ceci SJ. 2004. Forensic developmental psychology: unveiling four scientific misconceptions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. 13:229-32
15. Candel I, Merckelbach H, Loyen S, Reyskens H. 2005. "I hit the shift-key and then the computer crashed": children and false admissions. Personal. Individ. Differ. 38:1381-87
16. Cassell PG. 1999. The guilty and the "innocent": an examination of alleged cases of wrongful conviction from false confessions. Harvard J. Law Public Policy 22:523
17. Cauffman E, Steinberg L. 2 000. (Im)maturity of judgment in adolescence: why adolescents may be less culpable than adults. Behav. Sci. Law 18:741-60
18. Ceci SJ, Bruck M. 1995. Jeopardy in the Courtroom: A Scientific Analysis of Children's Testimony. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
19. Clare I, Gudjonsson GH. 1995. The vulnerability of suspects with intellectual disabilities during police interviews: a review and experimental study of decision-making. Ment. Handicap Res. 8:110-28
20. Clarke C, Milne R. 2001. National evaluation of the PEACE investigative interviewing course. Police Res. Award Scheme Rep. No. PRAS/149, Home Office, London
21. Cloud M, Shepard GB, Barkoff AN, Shur JV. 2002. Words without meaning: the Constitution, confessions, and mentally retarded suspects. Univ. Chic. Law Rev. 69:495-624
22. Clymer SD. 2002. Are police free to disregard Miranda? Yale Law J. 112:447-552
23. Crocker J, Voelkl K, Testa M, Major B. 1991. Social stigma: the affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 60:218-28
24. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993)
25. Davis D, O'Donahue W. 2004. The road to perdition: extreme influence tactics in the interrogation room. In Handbook of Forensic Psychology, ed. W O'Donahue, pp. 897-996. San Diego, CA: Academic
26. DePaulo BM, Lindsay JJ, Malone BE, Muhlenbruck L, Charlton K, Cooper H. 2003. Cues to deception. Psychol. Bull. 129:74-112
27. Dickerson v. United States, 120 S.Ct. 2326 (2000)
28. Drizin SA, Colgan B. 2004. Tales from the juvenile confession front: a guide to how standard police interrogation tactics can produce coerced and false confessions from juvenile suspects. See Lassiter 2004, pp. 127-62
29. Drizin SA, Leo RA. 2004. The problem of false confessions in the post-DNA world. N. C. Law Rev. 82:891-1007
30. Drizin SA, Reich MJ. 2004. Heeding the lessons of history: the need for mandatory recording of police interrogations to accurately assess the reliability and voluntariness of confessions. Drake Law Rev. 52:619-46
31. Dror IE, Charlton D. 2006. Why experts make errors. J. Forensic Identif. 56:600-16
32. Ekman P, O'Sullivan M, Frank MG. 1999. A few can catch a liar. Psychol. Sci. 10:263-66
33. Elaad R. 2003. Effects of feedback on the overestimated capacity to detect lies and the underestimated ability to tell lies. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 17:349-63
34. Everington C, Fulero S. 1999. Competence to confess: measuring understanding and suggestibility of defendants with mental retardation. Ment. Retard. 37:212-20
35. Fed. Rules Evidence. 2006. St. Paul, MN: West Group
36. Feld B. 2006. Police interrogations of juveniles: an empirical study of policy and practice. J. Crim. Law Criminol 97:219-316
37. Findley KA, Scott MS. 2006. The multiple dimensions of tunnel vision in criminal cases. Wis. Law Rev. 2:291-397
38. Finlay W, Lyons E. 2002. Acquiescence in interviews with people who have mental retardation. Ment. Retard. 40:14-29
39. Finnilä K, Mahlberga N, Santtilaa P, Niemib P. 2003. Validity of a test of children's suggestibility for predicting responses to two interview situations differing in degree of suggestiveness. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 85:32-49
40. Fisher J. 1996. Fall Guys: False Confessions and the Politics of Murder. Carbondale: So. Ill. Univ. Press
41. Frazier v. Cupp, 394 U.S. 731 (1969)
42. Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Circuit, 1923)
43. Fulero S, Everington C. 1995. Assessing competency to waive Miranda rights in defendants with mental retardation. Law Hum. Behav. 19:533-45
44. Fulero SM, Everington C. 2004. Mental retardation, competency to waive Miranda rights, and false confessions. In Interrogations, Confessions, and Entrapment, ed. GD Lassiter, pp. 163-79. New York: Kluwer Acad.
45. Garrett B. 2008. Judging innocence. Columbia Law Rev. 108:55-142
46. Garrido E, Masip J, Herrero C. 2004. Police officers' credibility judgments: accuracy and estimated ability. Int. J Psychol. 39:254-75
47. Garven S, Wood JM, Malpass RS. 2000. Allegations of wrongdoing: the effects of reinforcement on children's mundane and fantastic claims. J. Appl. Psychol. 85:38-49
48. Geller WA. 1993. Videotaping Interrogations and Confessions: National Institute of Justice Research in Brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Dep. Justice
49. Gilovich T, Savitsky K, Medvec VH. 1998. The illusion of transparency: biased assessments of others' ability to read one's emotional states. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 75:332-46
50. Gohara MS. 2006. A lie for a. lie: false confessions and the case for reconsidering the legality of deceptive interrogation techniques. Fordham Urban Law J. 33:791
51. Goldstein N, Condie L, Kalbeitzer R, Osman D, Geier J. 2003. Juvenile offenders' Miranda rights comprehension and self-reported likelihood of false confessions. Assessment 10:359-69
52. Grano JD. 1994. Confessions, Truth, and the Law. Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
53. Grisso T. 1981. Juveniles' Waiver of Rights: Legal and Psychological Competence. New York: Plenum
54. Grisso T. 1998. Forensic Evaluation of Juveniles. Sarasota, FL: Prof. Resour. Press
55. Grisso T, Steinberg L, Woolard J, Cauffman E, Scott E, et al. 2003. Juveniles' competence to stand trial: a comparison of adolescents' and adults' capacities as trial defendants. Law Hum. Behav. 27:333-63
56. Gross SR, Jacoby K, Matheson DJ, Montgomery N, Patel S. 2005. Exonerations in the United States, 1989 through 2003. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 95:523-53
57. Gudjonsson GH. 1992. The Psychology of Interrogations, Confessions, and Testimony. London: Wiley
58. Gudjonsson GH. 2003. The Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions: A Handbook. Chichester, UK: Wiley
59. Gudjonsson GH, Henry LA. 2003. Child and adult witnesses with learning disabilities: the importance of suggestibility. Legal Criminol. Psychol. 8:241-52
60. Gudjonsson GH, MacKeith JA. 1982. False confessions: psychological effects of interrogation. In Reconstructing the Past: The Role of Psychologists in Criminal Trials, ed. A Trankell, pp. 253-69. Deventer, Neth: Kluwer
61. Gudjonsson GH, MacKeith JAC. 1994. Learning disability and the Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984. Protection during investigative interviewing: a video-recorded false confession to double murder. J. Forensic Psychiatry 5:35-49
62. Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF. 1994. How frequently do false confessions occur? An empirical study among prison inmates. Psychol. Crime Law 1:21-26
63. Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF. 1999. The Gudjonsson Confession Questionnaire-Revised (GCQ-R): factor structure and its relationship with personality. Personal. Individ. Diff 27:953-68
64. Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF, Asgeirsdottir BB, Sigfusdottir ID. 2006. Custodial interrogation, false confession, and individual differences: a national study among Icelandic youth. Personal. Individ. Differ. 41:49-59
65. Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF, Asgeirsdottir BB, Sigfusdottir ID. 2008. Interrogation and false confession among adolescents in seven European countries: What background and psychological variables best discriminate between false confessors and non-false confessors? Psychol. Crime Law. In press
66. Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF, Einarsson E. 2004. The role of personality in relation to confessions and denials. Psychol. Crime Law 10:125-35
67. Hartwig M, Granhag PA, Strömwall L, Vrij A. 2005. Detecting deception via strategic closure of evidence. Law Hum. Behav. 29:469-84
68. Hartwig M, Granhag PA, Strömwall LA, Kronkvist O. 2006. Strategic use of evidence during police interviews: when training to detect deception works. Law Hum. Behav. 30:603-19
69. Hasel LE, Kassin SM. 2009. On the presumption of evidentiary independence: Can confessions corrupt eyewitness identifications? Psychol. Sci. In press
70. Hirsch A. 2007. Confessions and harmless error: a new argument for an old approach. Berkeley J. Crim. Law 12:1-28
71. Home Office. 1985. Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. London: HMSO
72. Honts CR, Kassin SM. 2007. False confessions by juvenile offenders as believable as true confessions. Presented at Interrog. Confess.: Conf. Explor. Curr. Res., Pract., Policy, El Paso, TX, Sept. 27-29
73. Horselenberg R, Merckelbach H, Josephs S. 2003. Individual differences and false confessions: a conceptual replication of Kassin and Kiechel 1996. Psychol. Crime Law 9:1-18
74. Horselenberg R, Merckelbach H, Smeets T, Franssens D, Peters GY, Zeles G. 2006. False confessions in the lab: Do plausibility and consequences matter? Psychol. Crime Law 12:61-75
75. Horvath F, Jayne B, Buckley J. 1994. Differentiation of truthful and deceptive criminal suspects in behavior analysis interviews. J. Forensic Sci. 39:793-807
76. Inbau FE, Reid JE, Buckley JP, Jayne BC. 2001. Criminal Interrogation and Confessions. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. 4th ed.
77. Irving B, McKenzie IK. 1989. Police Interrogation: The Effects of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act. London: Police Found. G. B.
78. Kahn R, Zapf P, Cooper V 2006. Readability of Miranda warnings and waivers: implications for evaluating Miranda comprehension. Law Psychol. Rev. 30:119-42
79. Karlsen CF. 1989. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft, in Colonial New England. New York: Vintage
80. Kassin SM. 1997a. The psychology of confession evidence. Am. Psychol. 52:221-33
81. Kassin SM. 1997b. False memories turned against the self. Psychol. Inq. 8:300-2
82. Kassin SM. 2002. False confessions and the jogger case. New York Times, Nov. 1, p. A31
83. Kassin SM. 2005. On the psychology of confessions: Does innocence put innocents at risk? Am. Psychol. 60:215-28
84. Kassin SM. 2007. Internalized false confessions. In Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology: Vol. 1: Memory for Events, ed. M Toglia, J Read, D Ross, R Lindsay, pp. 175-92. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
85. Kassin SM. 2008. Confession evidence: commonsense myths and misconceptions. Crim. Justice Behav. In press
86. Kassin SM, Fong CT. 1999. "I'm innocent!" Effects of training on judgments of truth and deception in the interrogation room. Law Hum. Behav. 23:499-516
87. Kassin SM, Goldstein CJ, Savitsky K. 2003. Behavioral confirmation in the interrogation room: on the dangers of presuming guilt. Law Hum. Behav. 27:187-203
88. Kassin SM, Gudjonsson GH. 2004. The psychology of confession evidence: a review of the literature and issues. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 5:35-69
89. Kassin SM, Kiechel KL. 1996. The social psychology of false confessions: compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychol. Sci. 7:125-28
90. Kassin SM, Leo RA, Meissner CA, Richman KD, Colwell LH, et al. 2007. Police interviewing and interrogation: a self-report survey of police practices and beliefs. Law Hum. Behav. 31:381-400
91. Kassin SM, McNall K. 1991. Police interrogations and confessions: communicating promises and threats by pragmatic implication. Law Hum. Behav. 15:233-51
92. Kassin SM, Meissner CA, Norwick RJ. 2005. "I'd know a false confession if I saw one": a comparative study of college students and police investigators. Law Hum. Behav. 29:211-27
93. Kassin SM, Neumann K. 1997. On the power of confession evidence: an experimental test of the "fundamental difference" hypothesis. Law Hum. Behav. 21:469-84
94. Kassin SM, Norwick. R. 2004. Why people waive their Miranda rights: the power of innocence. Law Hum. Behav. 28:211-21
95. Kassin SM, Sukel H. 1997. Coerced confessions and the jury: an experimental test of the "harmless error" rule. Law Hum. Behav. 21:27-46
96. Kassin SM, Wrightsman LS. 1980. Prior confessions and mock juror verdicts. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 10:133-46
97. Kassin SM, Wrightsman LS. 1985. Confession evidence. In The Psychology of Evidence and Trial Procedure, ed. SM Kassin, LS Wrightsman, pp. 67-94. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
98. Kodowitz A. 1999. The unprotected. The New Yorker, Feb. 8, pp. 42-53
99. Kozel FA, Johnson KA, Mu Q, Grenesko EL, Laken SJ, George MS. 2005. Detecting deception using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Biol. Psychiatry 58:605-13
100. Lambert B. 2007. Jailed 17 years, Long Island man gets second trial. New York Times, Dec. 22, p. A1
101. Lassiter GD, ed. 2004. Interrogations, Confessions, and Entrapment. New York: Kluwer Acad.
102. Lassiter GD, Diamond SS, Schmidt HC, Elek JK. 2007. Evaluating videotaped confessions: expertise provides no defense against the camera-perspective effect. Psychol. Sci. 18:224-26
103. Lassiter GD, Geers AL. 2004. Evaluation of confession evidence: effects of presentation format. See Lassiter 2004, pp. 197-214
104. Lassiter GD, Geers AL, Handley IM, Weiland PE, Munhall PJ. 2002. Videotaped confessions and interrogations: a change in camera perspective alters verdicts in simulated trials. J. Appl. Psychol. 87:867-74
105. Lassiter GD, Geers AL, Munhall PJ, Handley IM, Beers MJ. 2001. Videotaped confessions: Is guilt in the eye of the camera? Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 33:189-254
106. Lassiter GD, Irvine AA. 1986. Videotaped confessions: the impact of camera point of view on judgments of coercion. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 16:268-76
107. Lassiter GD, Slaw RD, Briggs MA, Scanlan CR. 1992. The potential for bias in videotaped confessions. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 22:1838-51
108. Leach A-M, Talwar V, Lee K, Bala N, Lindsay RCL. 2004. "Intuitive" lie detection and children's deception by law enforcement officials and university students. Law Hum. Behav. 28:661-85
109. Leo RA. 1996a. Inside the interrogation room. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 86:266-303
110. Leo RA. 1996b. Miranda's revenge: police interrogation as a confidence game. Law Soc. Rev. 30:259-88
111. Leo RA. 2008. Police Interrogation and American Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
112. Leo RA, Ofshe RJ. 1998. The consequences of false confessions: deprivations of liberty and miscarriages of justice in the age of psychological interrogation. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 88:429-96
113. Leo RA, Ofshe RJ. 2001. The truth about false confessions and advocacy scholarship. Crim. Law Bull. 37:293370
114. Lerner MJ. 1980. The Belief in a Just World. New York: Plenum
115. Loftus EF. 1997. Creating false memories. Sci. Am. 277:70-75
116. Magid L. 2001. Deceptive police interrogation practices: How far is too far? Mich. Law Rev. 99:1168
117. McCormick CT. 1972. Handbook of the Law of Evidence. St. Paul, MN: West. 2nd ed.
118. Meili T. 2003. I Am the Central Park Jogger: A Story of Hope and Possibility. New York: Scribner
119. Meissner CA, Kassin SM. 2002. "He's guilty!": Investigator bias in judgments of truth and deception. Law Hum. Behav. 26:469-80
120. Meyer JR, Reppucci ND. 2007. Police practices and perceptions regarding juvenile interrogations and interrogative suggestibility. Behav. Sci. Law 25:1-24
121. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 336 (1966)
122. Missouri v. Seibert, 542 U.S. 600 (2004)
123. Moore TE, Gagnier K. 2008. "You can talk if you want to": Is the police caution on the right to silence comprehensible? Crim. Rep. 51C.R.(6th):233-49
124. Moston S, Stephenson GM, Williamson TM. 1992. The effects of case characteristics on suspect behaviour during questioning. Br. J. Criminol. 32:23-40
125. Moston S, Stephenson GM, Williamson TM. 1993. The incidence, antecedents and consequences of the use of die right to silence during police questioning. Crim. Behav. Ment. Health 3:30-47
126. Nader R. 2006. A corporate abuse - coerced confessions. San Francisco Bay Area Independent Media Cent., May 20. http://www.indybay.org/ newsitems/2006/05/20/18244411.php
127. Nash RA, Wade KA. 2008. Eliciting internalized false confessions using doctored video evidence. Presented at Annu. Meet. Assoc. Psychol. Sci., Chicago, IL, May
128. Natl. Inst. Ment. Health. 2001. Teenage brain: a work in progress. NIH Publ. No. 01-4929. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/teenbrain.cfm
129. Neuschatz JS, Lawson DS, Swanner JK, Meissner CA, Neuschatz JS. 2008. The effects of accomplice witnesses and jailhouse informants on jury decision making. Law Hum. Behav. 32:137-49
130. New York v. Wise, Richardson, McCray, Salaam, & Santana: Affirmation in Response to Motion to Vacate Judgment of Conviction, Indictment No. 4762/89 (Dec. 5, 2002)
131. Nurmi JE. 1991. How do adolescents see their future? A review of the development of future orientation and planning. Dev. Rev. 11:1-59
132. Oberlander LB, Goldstein NE. 2001. A review and update on the practice of evaluating Miranda comprehension. Behav. Sci. Law 19:453-71
133. O'Connell MJ, Garmoe W, Goldstein NES. 2005. Miranda comprehension in adults with mental retardation and the effects of feedback style on suggestibility. Law Hum. Behav. 29:359-69
134. Ost J, Costall A, Bull R. 2001. False confessions and false memories: a model for understanding retractors' experiences. J. Forensic Psychiatry 12:549-79
135. O'Sullivan M. 2007. Unicorns or Tiger Woods: Are lie detection experts myths or rarities? A response to on lie detection "wizards" by Bond and Uysal. Law Hum. Behav. 31:117-23
136. O'Sullivan M, Ekman P. 2004. The wizards of deception detection. In Deception Detection in Forensic Contexts, ed. PA Granhag, LA Strömwall, pp. 269-86. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
137. Owen-Kostelnik J, Reppucci ND, Meyer JR. 2006. Testimony and interrogation of minors: assumptions about maturity and morality. Am. Psychol. 61:286-304
138. Periman NB, Ericson KI, Esses VM, Isaacs BJ. 1994. The developmentally handicapped witness: competency as a function of question format. Law Hum. Behav. 18:171-87
139. Redlich AD, Goodman GS. 2003. Taking responsibility for an act not committed: influence of age and suggestibility. Law Hum. Behav. 27:141-56
140. Rigoni ME, Meissner CA. 2008. Is it time fir a revolution in the interrogation room? Empirically validating inquisitorial methods. Presented at Meet. Am. Psychol.-Law Soc., Jacksonville, FL, Mar. 5-8
141. Rogers R, Harrison K, Shuman D, Sewell K, Hazelwood L. 2007. An analysis of Miranda warnings and waivers: comprehension and coverage. Law Hum. Behav. 31:177-92
142. Rogers R, Hazelwood L, Sewell K, Harrison K, Shuman D. 2008. The language of Miranda warnings in American jurisdictions: a replication and vocabulary analysis. Law Hum. Behav. 32:124-36
143. Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005)
144. Rosenthal R, Jacobson L. 1968. Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupils' Intellectual Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston
145. Russano MB, Meissner CA, Narchet FM, Kassin SM. 2005. Investigating true and false confessions within a novel experimental paradigm. Psychol. Sci. 16:481-86
146. Santos F. 2006. DNA evidence frees a. man imprisoned for half his life. New York Times, Sept. 21, p. A1
147. Saulny S. 2002. Why confess to what you didn't do? New York Times, Dec. 8, Sect. 4, p. 5
148. Schachter S, Singer J. 1962. Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychol. Rev. 69:379-99
149. Scheck B, Neufeld P, Dwyer J. 2000. Actual Innocence. Garden City, NY: Doubleday
150. Scott-Hayward CS. 2007. Explaining juvenile false confessions: adolescent development and police interrogation. Law Psychol. Rev. 31:53-76
151. Shaw JA, Budd ED. 1982. Determinants of acquiescence and nay saying of mentally retarded persons. Am. J. Ment. Defic. 87:108-110
152. Sigurdsson JF, Gudjonsson GH. 2001. False confessions: the relative importance of psychological, criminological and substance abuse variables. Psychol. Crime Law 7:275-89
153. Slobogin C. 2007. Lying and confessing. Tex. Tech Law Rev. 39
154. Snyder H. 2006. Juvenile Arrests 2004. Washington, DC: Off. Juv. Justice Delinq. Prev., Off. Justice Programs
155. Softley P. 1980. Police interrogation: an observational study in four police stations. Home Off. Res. Study No. 61, Her Majesty's Station. Off., London
156. Steinberg L. 2007. Risk taking in adolescence: new perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16:55-59
157. Steinberg L, Cauffman E. 1996. Maturity of judgment in adolescence: psychosocial factors in adolescent decision making. Law Hum. Behav. 20:249-72
158. Steinberg L, Scott E. 2003. Less guilty by reason of adolescence: Developmental immaturity, diminished responsibility, and the juvenile death penalty. Am. Psychol. 58:1009-18
159. Steingrimsdottir G, Hreinsdottir H, Gudjonsson GH, Sigurdsson JF, Nielsen T. 2007. False confessions and the relationship with offending behaviour and personality among Danish adolescents. Legal Criminol. Psychol. 12:287-96
160. Sullivan T. 1992. Unequal Verdicts: The Central Park Jogger Trials. New York: Simon & Schuster
161. Sullivan TP. 2 004. Police Experiences with Recording Custodial Interrogations. Chicago: Northwestern Univ. Law School, Cent. Wrongful Convict.
162. The Justice Project. 2007. Electronic Recording of Custodial Interrogations: A Policy Review. Washington, DC: The Justice Proj.
163. Thomas GC III. 2007. Regulating police deception during interrogation. Tex. Tech Law Rev. 39
164. Torkildson J, Kassin SM. 2008. Inside interrogation: the outright lie, the bluff, and false confessions. Presented at Meet. Am. Psychol.-Law Conf., Jacksonville, FL, Mar. 5-8
165. Valins S. 1966. Cognitive effects of false heart-rate feedback. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 4:400-8
166. Viljoen J, Klaver J, Roesch R. 2005. Legal decisions of preadolescent and adolescent defendants: predictors of confessions, pleas, communication with attorneys, and appeals. Law Hum. Behav. 29:253-78
167. Viljoen J, Roesch R. 2005. Competence to waive interrogation rights and adjudicative competence in adolescent defendants: cognitive development, attorney contact, and psychological symptoms. Law Hum. Behav. 29:723-42
168. Viljoen J, Zapf P, Roesch R. 2007. Adjudicative competence and comprehension of Miranda rights in adolescent defendants: a comparison of legal standards. Behav. Sci. Law 25:1-19
169. Vrij A. 2008. Detecting Lies and Deceit: Pitfalls and Opportunities. Chichester, UK: Wiley
170. Vrij A, Fisher R, Mann S, Leal S. 2006a. Detecting deception by manipulating cognitive load. Trends Cogn. Sci. 10:141-42
171. Vrij A, Mann S, Fisher RP. 2006b. An empirical test of the Behaviour Analysis Interview. Law Hum. Behav. 30:329-45
172. Vrij A, Mann S, Fisher RP, Leal S, Milne R, Bull R. 2008. Increasing cognitive load to facilitate lie detection: the benefit of recalling an event in reverse order. Law Hum. Behav. 32:253-65
173. Wald M, Ayres R, Hess DW, Schantz M, Whitebread CH. 1967. Interrogations in New Haven: the impact of Miranda. Yale Law J. 76:1519-648
174. Whipple GM. 1909. The observer as reporter: a survey of the "psychology of testimony." Psychol. Bull. 6:153-70
175. White WS. 2003. Miranda Ir Waning Protections: Police Interrogation Practices after Dickerson. Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
176. Williamson T, ed. 2006. Investigative Interviewing: Rights, Research, Regulation. Devon, UK: Willan
177. Wrightsman LS, Kassin SM. 1993. Confessions in the Courtroom. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
178. Young D. 1998. Unnecessary evil: police lying in interrogations. Conn. Law Rev. 28:425
179. Zimbardo PG. 1967. The psychology of police confessions. Psychol. Today 1:17-20, 25-27
180. Zulawski DE, Wicklander DE. 1993. Practical Aspects of Interview and Interrogation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press