Evolution of adaptive plasticity: Risk-sensitive hatching in neotropical leaf-breeding treefrogs

Ecological Monographs

Volumn 78, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 205-224

  Gomez Mestre, Ivan ^a   Wiens, John J ^b   Warkentin, Karen M ^c  

^a Boston University   (United States)

^b STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY   (Spain)

Author keywords

Agalychnis; Amphibian; Antipredator behavior; Embryo behavior; Hypoxic stress; Inducible defense; Life history switch point; Ontogenetic niche shift; Pachymedusa; Phenotypic plasticity; Phylogeny; Predation

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; BREEDING POPULATION; EVOLUTION; FROG; HATCHING; LIFE CYCLE; PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY; PHYLOGENY; PREDATION; RISK ASSESSMENT;

AGALYCHNIS; AGALYCHNIS CALLIDRYAS; AMPHIBIA; ANURA; HYLA; PACHYMEDUSA;

EID: 55949112464     PISSN: 00129615     EISSN: 15577015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1890/07-0529.1     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Ackerly, D. D., and M. J. Donoghue. 1998. Leaf size, sapling allometry, and Corner's rules: phylogeny and correlated evolution in maples (Acer). American Naturalist 152:767-791.
2. Ackerly, D. D., and P. B. Reich. 1999. Convergence and correlations among leaf size and function in seed plants: a comparative test using independent contrasts. American Journal of Botany 86:1272-1281.
3. Alba, R. P. M. Kelmenson, M. M. Cordonnier-Pratt, and L. H. Pratt. 2000. The phytochrome gene family in tomato and the rapid differential evolution of this family in angiosperms. Molecular Biology and Evolution 17:362-373.
4. Alfaro, M. E., S. Zoller, and F. Lutzoni. 2003. Bayes or bootstrap? A simulation study comparing the performance of Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling and bootstrapping in assessing phylogenetic confidence. Molecular Biology and Evolution 20:255-266.
5. Allison, P. D. 1995. Survival analysis using the SAS system: a practical guide. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA.
6. Archie, J. W. 1996. Measures of homoplasy. Pages 153-188 in M. J. Sanderson and L. Hufford, editors. Homoplasy: the recurrence of similarity in evolution. Academic Press. San Diego, California, USA.
7. Arnold, S. J, 1986. Limits on stabilizing, disruptive, and correlational selection set by the opportunity for selection. American Naturalist 128:143-146.
8. Bell, D. L., and S, E. Sultan. 1999. Dynamic phenotypic plasticity for root growth in Polygonum; a comparative study. American Journal of Botany 86:807-819.
9. Benard. M. F. 2004. Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity in organisms with complex life histories. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematica 35:651-673.
10. Botto, J. F., and H. Smith. 2002. Differential genetic variation in adaptive strategies to a common environmental signal in Arabidopsis accessions: phytochrome-mediated shade avoidance. Plant Cell and Environment 25:53-63.
11. Bradford, D. F., and R. S. Seymour. 1988. Influence of water potential on growth and survival of the embryo, and gas conductance of the egg, in a terrestrial breeding frog, Pseudophryne bibroni. Physiological Zoology 61:470-474.
12. Brandley, M. C. A. Schmitz, and T. W. Reeder. 2005. Partitioned Bayesian analyses, partition choice, and the phylogenetic relationships of scincid lizards. Systematic Biology 54:373-390.
13. Burnham, K. P., and D. R. Anderson. 2002. Model selection and multi-model inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
14. Bussing, W. A. 2002. Freshwater fishes of Costa Rica. Second edition. Universidad de San Jose, San Jose, Costa Rica.
15. Cannatella, D. C. 1980. A review of the Phyllomedusa buckleyi group (Anura: Hylidae). Occasional Papers of the Museum of Natural History, The University of Kansas 87:1-40.
16. Cannatella, D. C. 1982. Leaf-frogs of the Phyllomedusa perinesos group (Anura: Hylidae). Copeia 1982:501-513.
17. Chivers, D. P., J. M. Kiesecker, A. Marco, J. De Vito, M. T. Anderson, and A, R. Blaustein. 2001, Predator-induced life history changes in amphibians: egg predation induces hatching. Oikos 92:135-142.
18. Colbourne, J. K., P. D. N. Hebert, and D. J. Taylor. 1997. Evolutionary origins of phenotypic diversity in Daphnia. Pages 163-188 in T. J. Givnish and K. J. Sytsma, editors. Molecular evolution and adaptive radiation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
19. Courchamp, F., T. Glutton-Brock, and B, Grenfell. 1999. Inverse density dependence and the Allee effect. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14:405-410.
20. Crawley, M. J. 1993. GLIM for ecologists. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
21. Cruz, C. A. G. d. 1990. Sobre as relaçoes intergenericas de Phyllomedusinae da Floresta Atlantica (Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae). Revista Brasileira de Biologia 50:709-726.
22. Czerkies, P., P. Brzuzan, K. Kordalski, and M, Luczynski. 2001. Critical partial pressures of oxygen causing precocious hatching in Coregonus lavaretus and C. albula embryos. Aquaculture 196:151-158.
23. Denver, R. J. 1997a. Environmental stress as a developmental cue: corticotropin-releasing hormone is a proximate mediator of adaptive phenotypie plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis, Hormones and Behavior 31:169-179.
24. Denver, R. J. 1997b. Proximate mechanisms of phenotypie plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis. American Zoologist 37:172-184.
25. DeWitt, T. J., and S. M. Scheiner. 2004. Phenotypic plasticity: functional and conceptual approaches. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
26. DiMichele, L., and M. H. Taylor. 1980. The environmental control of of hatching in Fundulus heteroclitus. Journal of Experimental Zoology 214:181-187.
27. Donnelly, M. A., and C. Guyer. 1994. Patterns of reproduction and habitat use in an assemblage of Neotropical hylid frogs. Oecologia 98:291-302.
28. Donohue, K., E. H. Pyle, D. Messiqua, M. S. Heschel, and J. Schmitt. 2001. Adaptive divergence in plasticity in natural populations of Impatiens capensis and its consequences for performance in novel habitats. Evolution 55:692-702.
29. Dorn, L. A., E. Hammond Pyle, and J. Schmitt. 2000. Plasticity to light cues and resources in Arabidopsis thaliana: testing for adaptive value and costs. Evolution 54:1982-1994.
30. Doughty, P. 1995. Testing the ecological correlates of phenotypically plastic traits within a phylogenetic frame-work. Acta Oecologica 16:519-524.
31. Duellman, W. E. 1958. A monographic study of the colubrid snake genus Leptodeira. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 114:1-152.
32. Duellman, W. E. 1968. The genera of phyllomedusine frogs (Anura: Hylidae). University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History 18:1-10.
33. Duellman, W. E. 2001. The hylid frogs of Middle America. Second edition. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Ithaca, New York, USA.
34. Duellman, W. E., and L. Trueb. 1986. Biology of amphibians. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York, USA.
35. Faivovich, J., C. F. B. Haddad, P. C. A. Garcia, D. R. Frost, J. A. Campbell, and W. C. Wheeler. 2005. Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 294:1-240.
36. Fallis, S. P., and K. R. Snow. 1983. The hatching stimulus for eggs of Aedes punctor (Diptera. Culicidae). Ecological Entomology 8:23-28.
37. Felsenstein, J. 1985a. Confidence limits on phytogenies: an approach using the bootstrap. Evolution 39:783-791.
38. Felsenstein, J. 1985b. Phytogenies and the comparative method. American Naturalist 125:1-15.
39. Garcia, L. V. 2003. Controlling the false discovery rate in ecological research. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18:553-554.
40. Gjullin, C. M., C. P. Hegarty, and W. B. Bollen. 1941. The necessity of a low oxygen concentration for the hatching of Aedes mosquito eggs. Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology 17:193-202.
41. Gomez-Mestre, I., and D. R. Buchholz. 2006. Developmental plasticity mirrors differences among taxa in spadefoot toads linking plasticity and diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 103:19021-19026.
42. Gomez-Mestre, I., J. C. Touchon, and K. M. Warkentin. 2006. Amphibian embryo and parental defenses and a larval predator reduce egg mortality from water mold. Ecology 87:2570-2581.
43. Gomez-Mestre, I., and K. Warkentin. 2007. To hatch and hatch not: similar selective trade-offs but different responses to egg predators in two closely related, svntopic treefrogs. Oecologia 153:197-206.
44. Gosner, K. L. 1960. A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica 16:183-190.
45. Gosselin, L. A., and P.-Y. Qian. 1997. Juvenile mortality in benthic marine invertebrates. Marine Ecology Progress Series 146:265-282.
46. Gotthard, K., and S. Nylin. 1995. Adaptive plasticity and plasticity as an adaptation: a selective review of plasticity in animal morphology and life history. Oikos 74:3-17.
47. Haddad, C. F. B., and R. J. Sawaya. 2000. Reproductive modes of Atlantic forest hylid frogs: a general overview and the description of a new mode. Biotropica 32:862-871.
48. Hall, B. K., and M. H. Wake. 1999. Larval development, evolution, and ecology. Pages 1-19 in B. K. Hall and M. H. Wake, editors. The origin and evolution of larval forms. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
49. Hillis, D. M., and J. J. Bull. 1993. An empirical test of bootstrapping as a method for assessing confidence in phylogenetic analysis. Systematic Biology 42:182-192.
50. Huelsenbeck, J. P., and B, Rannala. 2004. Frequentist properties of Bayesian posterior probabilities of phylogenetic trees under simple and complex substitution models. Systematic Biology 53:904-913.
51. Huelsenbeck, J, P., and F. Ronquist. 2001. MRBAYES: Bayesian inference of phylogenetic trees. Bioinformatics 17: 754-755.
52. Ims, R. A. 1990. On the adaptive value of reproductive synchrony as a predator-swamping strategy. American Naturalist 136:485-498.
53. Ireland. D., A. Wirsing, and D, Murray. 2007. Phenotypically plastic responses of green frog embryos to conflicting predation risk. Oecologia 152:162-168.
54. Kembel, S. W., and J. F. Cahill. 2005. Plant phenotypie plasticity belowground: a phylogenetic perspective on root foraging trade-offs. American Naturalist 166:216-230.
55. Kirschner, M. W, and J. C. Gerhart. 2005. The plausibility of life. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
56. Kubicki, B. 2004. Leaf frogs of Costa Rica. INBio, San Jose, Costa Rica.
57. Kusch, R. C, and D. P. Chivers. 2004. The effects of crayfish predation on phenotypie and life-history variation in fathead minnows. Canadian Journal of Zoology 82:917-921.
58. Latham, K. E., and J. J. Just. 1989. Oxygen availability provides a signal for hatching in the rainbow trout (Salmogairdneri) embryo. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46:55-58.
59. Laurila, A., S. Pakkasmaa, P. A. Crochet, and J. Merila. 2002. Predator-induced plasticity in early life history and morphology in two anuran amphibians. Oecologia 132:524-530.
60. Lee, H. S., A. R. Zangerl, K. Garbutt, and F. A. Bazzaz. 1986. Within and between species variation in response to environmental gradients in Polygonum pensylvanicum and Polygonum virginianum. Oecologia 68:606-610.
61. Lee, J. C. 2000. Amphibians and reptiles of the Maya world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.
62. Leips, J., and J. Travis. 1994. Metamorphic responses to changing food levels in two species of hylid frogs. Ecology 75: 1345-1356.
63. Losos, J. B., T. W. Schoener, and D. A. Spiller. 2003. Effect of immersion in seawater on egg survival in the lizard Anolissagrei. Oecologia 137:360-362.
64. Maddison, W. P., and D. R. Maddison. 2006. Mesquite: a modular system for evolutionary analysis.
65. Martin, K. L. M. 1999. Ready and waiting: delayed hatching and extended incubation of anamniotic vertebrate terrestrial eggs. American Zoologist 39:279-288.
66. Martins, E. P. 1999. Estimation of ancestral states of continuous characters: a computer simulation study. Systematic Biology 48:642-650.
67. Martins, E. P. 2004. Compare, Version 4.6b. Computer programs for the statistical analysis of comparative data.
68. Martins, E. P., and T. F. Hansen. 1997. Phylogenies and the comparative method: a general approach to incorporating phylogenetic information into analysis of interspecific data. American Naturalist 149:646-667.
69. Miller, P. L. 1992. The effect of oxygen lack on egg hatching in an Indian dragonfly, Potamarcha congener. Physiological Entomology 17:68-72.
70. Montgomery, B. L., and J. C. Lagarias. 2002. Phytochrome ancestry: sensors of bilins and light. Trends in Plant Science 7:357-366.
71. Moreira, P. L., and M. Barata. 2005. Egg mortality and early embryo hatching caused by fungal infection of Iberian rock lizard (Lacerta monticola) clutches. Herpetological Journal 15:265-272.
72. Morey, S. R, and D. Reznick. 2000. A comparative analysis of plasticity in larval development in three species of spadefoot toads. Ecology 81:1736-1749.
73. Morey, S. R., and D. N. Reznick. 2004. The relationship between habitat permanence and larval development in California spadefoot toads: field and laboratory comparisons of developmental plasticity. Oikos 104:172-190.
74. Neckel-Oliveira, S., and M. Wachlevski. 2004. Predation on the arboreal eggs of three species of Phyllomedusa in Central Amazonia. Journal of Herpetology 38:244-248.
75. Newman, R. A. 1992. Adaptive plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis. BioScience 42:671-678.
76. Nylander, J. A. A. 2004. MrModeltest 2.0. Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
77. Nylander, J. A. A., F. Ronquist, J. P. Huelsenbeck, and J. L. Nieves-Aldrey. 2004. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of combined data. Systematic Biology 53:47-67.
78. Pagel, M. 1999. The maximum likelihood approach to reconstructing ancestral character states of discrete characters on phylogcnics. Systematic Biology 48:612-622.
79. Petranka, J. W., J. J. Just, and E. C. Crawford. 1982. Hatching of amphibian embyos: the physiological trigger. Science 217: 257-259.
80. Pigliucci, M. 2001. Phenotypic plasticity: beyond nature and nurture. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
81. Pigliucci, M., K. Cammell, and J. Schmitt. 1999. Evolution of phenotypic plasticity: a comparative approach in the phylogenetic neighbourhood of Arabidopsis thaliana. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 12:779-791.
82. Prado, C. P. A., M. Uetanabaro, and C. F. B. Haddad. 2005. Breeding activity patterns, reproductive modes, and habitat use by anurans (Amphibia) in a seasonal environment in the Pantanal, Brazil. Amphibia-Reptilia 26:211-221.
83. Pyburn, W. F. 1963. Observations on the life history of the treefrog, Phyllomedusa callidryas (Cope). Texas Journal of Science 15:155-170.
84. Pyburn, W. F. 1970, Breeding behavior of the leaf-frogs Phyllomedusa callidryas and Phyllomedusa dacnicolor in Mexico. Copeia 1970:209-218.
85. Richards, S. J., and R. A. Alford. 1992. Nest construction by an Australian rainforest frog of the Litoria lesaeuri complex (Anura: Hylidae). Copeia 1992:1120-1123.
86. Roberts, W. E. 1994, Explosive breeding aggregations and parachuting in a neotropical frog, Agalychnis saltator (Hylidae). Journal of Herpetology 28:193-199.
87. Roskam, J. C, and P. M. Brakefield. 1996. A comparison of temperature-induced polyphenism in African Bicyclus butterflies from a seasonal savannah-rainforest ecotone. Evolution 50:2360-2372.
88. Rowe, L., and D. Ludwig. 1991. Size and timing of metamorphosis in complex life cycles: time constraints and variation. Ecology 72:413-427.
89. Saenz, D., J. B. Johnson, C. K. Adams, and G. H. Dayton. 2003. Accelerated hatching of southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala eggs in response to the presence of a crayfish (Procamharus nigrocinctus) predator. Copeia 2003:646-649.
90. SAS Institute. 2003. SAS/STAT 9.1 software. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA.
91. Savage, J. M. 2002. The amphibians and reptiles of Costa Rica. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
92. Schmidt, B. R., and J. Van Buskirk. 2005. A comparative analysis of predator-induced plasticity in larval Triturus newts. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 18:415-425.
93. Schmitt, J., S. A. Dudley, and M. Pigliucci. 1999. Manipulative approaches to testing adaptive plasticity: phytochromemediated shade-avoidance responses in plants. American Naturalist 154:S43-S54.
94. Schwilk, D. W. 2001. Cactus 1.13. Comparative analysis of continuous traits using statistics. Prickly Software.
95. Schwilk, D. W., and D. D. Ackerly. 2001. Flammability and serotiny as strategies: correlated evolution in pines. Oikos 94: 326-336.
96. Scott, N. J., and A. Starret. 1974. An unusual breeding aggregation of frogs, with notes on the ecology of Agalychnis spurrelli (Anura: Hylidae). Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences 73:86-94.
97. Seymour, R. S., J. D. Roberts, N. J. Mitchell, and A. J. Blaylock. 2000, Influence of environmental oxygen on development and hatching of aquatic eggs of the Australian frog, Crinia geogiana. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 73:501-507.
98. Sih, A., and R. D. Moore. 1993. Delayed hatching of salamander eggs in response to enhanced larval predation risk. American Naturalist 142:947-960.
99. Smith, H. 2000. Phytochromes and light signal perception by plants: an emerging synthesis. Nature 407:585-591.
100. Snowdon, J. C. 1968. Vibration and shock in damped mechanical systems. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA.
101. Stearns, S. 1989. The evolutionary significance of phenotypic plasticity. BioScience 39:436-445.
102. Stoks, R., M. A. McPeek, and J. L. Mitchell. 2003. Evolution of prey behavior in response to changes in predation regime: damselfiies in fish and dragonfly lakes. Evolution 57:574-585.
103. Sullivan, J. A., and X. W. Deng. 2003. From seed to seed: the role of photoreceptors in Arabidopsis development. Developmental Biology 260:289-297.
104. Swofford, D. L. 2002. PAUP: phylogenetic analysis using parsimony. Version 4.0b10. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA.
105. Thompson, J. D., D. G. Higgins, and T. J. Gibson. 1994. Clustal-W: improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, positionspecific gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic Acids Research 22:4673-4680.
106. Tollrian, R., and C. D. Harvell. 1998. The ecology and evolution of inducible defenses. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
107. Vaira, M. 2001. Breeding biology of the leaf frog, Phyllomedusa boliviana (Anura, Hylidae). Amphibia-Reptilia 22:421-429.
108. Van Buskirk, J. 2002. A comparative test of the adaptive plasticity hypothesis: relationships between habitat and phenotype in anuran larvae. American Naturalist 160:87-102.
109. Van Gool, E., and J. Ringelberg. 1998. Light-induced migration behaviour of Daphnia modified by food and predator kairomones. Animal Behaviour 56:741-747.
110. Verhoeven, K. J. F., K. L, Simonsen, and L. M. McIntyre. 2005. Implementing false discovery rate control: increasing your power. Oikos 108:643-647.
111. Vonesh, J. R. 2005. Egg predation and predator-induced hatching plasticity in the African reed frog, Hyperolius spinigularis. Oikos 110:241-252.
112. Warkentin, K. M. 1995. Adaptive plasticity in hatching age: a response to predation risk trade-offs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 92:3507-3510.
113. Warkentin, K. M. 1999. Effects of hatching age on development and hatchling morphology in the red-eyed treefrog, Agalychnis callidryas. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 68: 443-470.
114. Warkentin, K. M. 2000a. Environmental and developmental effects on external gill loss in the red-eyed tree frog, Agalychnis callidrvas. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 73:557-565.
115. Warkentin, K. M. 20006. Wasp prédation and wasp-induced hatching of red-eyed treefrog eggs. Animal Behaviour 60: 503-510.
116. Warkentin, K. M. 2002. Hatching timing, oxygen availability, and external gill regression in the tree frog, Agalychnis callidryas. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 75:155-164.
117. Warkentin, K. M, 2005. How do embryos assess risk? Vibrational cues in predator-induced hatching of red-eyed treefrogs. Animal Behaviour 70:59-71.
118. Warkentin, K. M. 2007. Oxygen, gills, and embryo behavior: mechanisms of adaptive plasticity in hatching. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology 148:720-731.
119. Warkentin, K. M., M. S. Caldwell, and J. G. McDaniel. 2006. Temporal pattern cues in vibrational risk assessment by embryos of the red-eyed treefrog, Agalychnis callidryas. Journal of Experimental Biology 209:1376-1384.
120. Warkentin, K. M., M. S. Caldwell T. D. Siok, A. T. D'Amato, and J. G. McDaniel. 2007. Flexible information sampling in vibrational risk assessment by red-eyed treefrog embryos. Journal of Experimental Biology 210:614-619.
121. Warkentin, K. M., C. R. Currie, and S. A. Rehmer. 2001, Egg-killing fungus induces early hatching of red-eyed treefrog eggs. Ecology 82:2860-2869.
122. Webb, C. O., D. D. Ackerly, and S. W. Kembel. 2006. Phylocom: software for the analysis of community phylogenetic structure and trait evolution.
123. Wedekind, C. 2002. Induced hatching to avoid infectious egg disease in whitefish. Current Biology 12:69-71.
124. Werner, E. E. 1986. Amphibian metamorphosis: growth rate, predation risk, and the optimal size at transformation. American Naturalist 128:319-341.
125. Werner, E. E. 1988. Size, scaling, and the evolution of complex life cycles. Pages 60-81 in B. Ebenman and L. Persson, editors. Size-structured populations. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
126. Werner, E. E., and J. F. Gilliam. 1984. The ontogenetic niche and species interactions in size-structured populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15:393-425.
127. West-Eberhard, M. J. 2003. Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
128. Wiens, J. J. 1998. Combining data sets with different phylogenetic histories. Systematic Biology 47:568-581.
129. Wiens, J. J., J. W. Fetzner, C. L. Parkinson, and T. W. Reeder. 2005. Hylid frog phylogeny and sampling strategies for speciose clades. Systematic Biology 54:719-748.
130. Wiens, J. J., C. H. Graham, D. S. Moen, S. A. Smith, and T. W. Reeder. 2006. Evolutionary and ecological causes of the latitudinal diversity gradient in hylid frogs: treefrog trees unearth the roots of high tropical diversity. American Naturalist 168:579-596.
131. Wilbur, H. M. 1980. Complex life cycles. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11:67-93.
132. Wilbur, H. M., and J. P. Collins. 1973. Ecological aspects of amphibian metamorphosis. Science 182:1305-1314.
133. Wilcox, T. P., D. J. Zwickl, T. A. Heath, and D. M. Hillis. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of the dwarf boas and a comparison of Bayesian and bootstrap measures of phylogenetic support. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 25: 361-371.
134. Windig, J. J., C. G. F. De Kovel, and G. De Jong. 2004. Genetics and mechanics of plasticity. Pages 31-49 in T. J. DeWitt and S. M, Scheiner, editors. Phenotypic plasticity. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
135. Wogel, H., P. A. Abrunhosa, and J. P. Pombal. 2005. Breeding behaviour and mating success of Phyllomedusa rohdei (Anura. Hylidae) in south-eastern Brazil. Journal of Natural History 39:2035-2045.