Biomechanical modeling for understanding of low back injuries: A systematic review

Occupational Ergonomics

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 57-76

  Davis, Kermit G ^a   Jorgensen, Michael J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b WICHITA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

EMG assisted models; Low back pain; Muscle anatomy; Optimization; Spine loads; Torso dynamics

Indexed keywords

EID: 55449128403     PISSN: 13599364     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. M.A. Adams, Spine update mechanical testing of the spine: an appraisal of methodology, results, and conclusions, Spine 20 (1995), 2151-2156.
2. M.A. Adams, P. Dolan and W.C. Hutton, The lumbar spine in backward bending, Spine 13 (1988), 1019-1026.
3. M.A. Adams, B.J.C. Freeman, H.P. Morrison, I.W. Nelson and P. Dolan, Mechanical initiation of intervertebral disc degeneration, Spine 25 (2000), 1625-1636.
4. M.A. Adams and W.C. Hutton, The mechanical function of the lumbar apophyseal joints, Spine 8 (1983), 327-330.
5. M.A. Adams, D.W. McMillan, T.P. Green and P. Dolan, Sustained loading generates stress concentrations in lumbar intervertebral discs, Spine 21 (1996), 434-438.
6. M.A. Adams, D.S. McNally and P. Dolan, 'Stress' distributions inside intervertebral discs - The effects of age and degeneration, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-British 78B (1996), 965-972.
7. G.B.J. Andersson, The epidemiology of spinal disorders, in: The Adult Spine, J.W. Frymoyer, T.B. Ducker, N.M. Hadler, J.P. Kostuik, J.N. Weistein and T.S. Whitecloud, eds, T.S. Raven Press, New York, NY, 1991.
8. E. Asmussen and K. Heeboll-Nielson, Isometric muscle strength in relation to age in men and women, Ergonomics 5 (1962), 167-169.
9. P.O. Astrand and K. Rodahl, Textbook of work physiology, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 2002.
10. A.I. Avramov, J.M. Cavanaugh, C.A. Ozaktay, T.V. Getchell and A.I. King, The effects of controlled mechanical loading on group-II, III, and IV afferent units from the lumbar facet joint and surrounding tissue, An in vitro study, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 74 (1992), 1464-1471.
11. W.L.C. Baril and J.W. Frymoyer, Identifying patients at risk of becoming disabled because of low-back-pain- the Vermont rehabilitation engineeringcenter predictive model, Spine 16 (1991), 605-607.
12. J.C. Bean, D.B. Chaffin and A.B. Schultz, Biomechanical model calculation of muscle-contraction forces - a double linear-programming method, Journal of Biomechanics 21 (1988), 59-66.
13. J.A. Beel, L.S. Stodieck and M.W. Luttges, Structural properties of spinal nerve roots: biomechanics, Experimental Neurology 91 (1986), 30-40.
14. T.M. Bernard, M.M. Ayoub and C.J. Lin, Evaluation of a biomechanical simulation model for sagittal plane lifting, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 24 (1999), 157-171.
15. N. Bogduk, The innervation of the lumbar spine, Spine 8 (1983), 286-293.
16. N. Bogduk, Clinical anatomy of the lumbar spine and sacrum, (3rd Ed.), Curchill Livingstone, New York, 1997.
17. N. Bogduk, J.E. Macintosh and M.J. Pearcy, A universal model of the lumbar back muscles in the upright position, Spine 17 (1992), 897-913.
18. R.A. Brand, The sensitivity of muscle force predictions to changes in physiological cross-sectional area, Journal of Biomechanics 19 (1986), 589-596.
19. P. Brinckmann, M. Biggemann and D. Hilweg, Prediction of the compressive strength of human lumbar vertebrae, Clinical Biomechanics 4 (1989), S1-S27.
20. J.P. Callaghan and S.M. McGill, Intervertebral disc herniation: studies on a porcine model exposed to highly repetitive flexion/extension motion with compressive force, Clinical Biomechanics 16 (2001), 28-37.
21. J.M. Cavanaugh, A.C. Ozaktay, H.T. Yamashita and A.I. King, Lumbar facet pain: Biomechanics, neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, Journal of Biomechanics 29 (1996), 1117-1129.
22. J.M. Cavanaugh, A.C. Ozaktay, T. Yamashita, A.I. Avramov, T.V. Getchell and A.I. King, Mechanisms of low back pain - Neurophysiologic and neuroanatomic study, Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research (1997), 166-180.
23. D.B. Chaffin and G.B.J. Andersson, Occupational Biomechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1991.
24. C.Y. Chen, J.M. Cavanaugh, A.C. Ozaktay, S. Kallakuri and A.I. King, Effects of phospholipase A(2) on lumbar nerve root structure and function, Spine 22 (1997), 1057-1064.
25. J. Cholewicki and S.M. McGill, EMG assisted optimization: a hybrid approach for estimating muscle forces in an indeterminate biomechanical model, Journal of Biomechanics 27 (1994), 1287-1289.
26. J. Cholewicki and S.M. McGill, Mechanical stability of the in vivo lumbar spine: Implications for injury and chronic low back pain, Clinical Biomechanics 11 (1996), 1-15.
27. J. Cholewicki, S.M. McGill and R.W. Norman, Comparison of muscle forces and joint load from an optimization and EMG assisted lumbar spine model: towards development of a hybrid approach, Journal of Biomechanics 28 (1995), 321-331.
28. J. Cholewicki, M.M. Panjabi and A. Khachatryan, Stabilizing function of trunk flexor-extensor muscles around a neutral spine posture, Spine 22 (1997), 2207-2212.
29. K.G. Davis and W.S. Marras, Assessment of the relationship between box weight and trunk kinematics: Does a reduction in box weight necessarily correspond to a decrease in spinal loading? Human Factors 42 (2000), 195-208.
30. S.J. Dreyer and P.H. Dreyfuss, Low back pain and the zygapophysial (facet) joints, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 77 (1996), 290-300.
31. R.H.T. Edwards, Hypotheses of peripheral and central mechanisms underlying occupational muscle pain and injury, European Journal of Applied Physiology 57 (1998), 275-281.
32. H.F. Farfan, J.W. Cossette, G.H. Robertson, R.V. Wells and H. Kraus, The effects of torsion on the lumbar intervertebral joints: the role of torsion in the production of disc degeneration, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 52 (1970), 468-497.
33. M. Franz, M. Franz, S. Mense and S. Mense, Muscle receptors with group IV afferent fibres responding to application of bradykinin, Brain Research 92 (1975), 369-383.
34. A. Freivalds, D.B. Chaffin, A. Garg and K.S. Lee, A dynamic biomechanical evaluation of lifting maximum acceptable loads, Journal of Biomechanics 17 (1984), 251-262.
35. J. Friden and R.L. Lieber, Structural and mecanical basis of exercise-induced muscle injury, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24 (1992), 521-530.
36. A. Fujiwara, K. Tamai, M. Yamato, H.S. An, H. Yoshida, K. Saotome and A. Kurihashi, The relationship between facet joint osteoarthritis and disc degeneration of the lumbar spine: an MRI study, European Spine Journal 8 (1999), 396-401.
37. H.N. Fullerton and M. Toossi, Labor force projections to 2010: steady growth and changing composition, Monthly-Labor Review 124 (2001), 21-38.
38. S.R. Garfin, B.L. Rydevik, B. Lind and J.B. Massie, Spinal nerve root compression, Spine 20 (1995), 1810-1820.
39. A. Garg and D.B. Chaffin, A biomechanical computerized simulation of human strength, AIIE Transactions 7 (1975), 1-15.
40. A.M. Genaidy, S.M. Waly, T.M. Khalil and J. Hidalgo, Spinal-compression tolerance limits for the design of manual material handling operations in the workplace, Ergonomics 36 (1993), 415-434.
41. T. Gomez, G.N. Beach, C.B. Cooke, W. Hrudey and P. Goyert, Normative database for trunk range of motion, strength, velocity, and endurance with isostation b-200 lumbar dynamometer, Spine 16 (1991), 15-21.
42. K.P. Granata and W.S. Marras, An EMG-assisted model of loads on the lumbar spine during asymmetric trunk extensions, Journal of Biomechanics 26 (1993), 1429-1438.
43. K.P. Granata and W.S. Marras, The influence of trunk muscle coactivity upon dynamic spinal loads, Spine 20 (1995), 913-919.
44. K.P. Granata and S.E. Wilson, Trunk posture and spinal stability, Clinical Biomechanics 16 (2001), 650-659.
45. M. Gronblad, J. Virri, J. Tolonen, S. Seitsalo, E. Kaapa, J. Kankare, P. Myllnen and E.O. Karaharju, A controlled immunohistochemical study of inflammatory cells in disc herniation tissue, Spine 19 (1994), 2744-2751.
46. A. Habtemariam, J. Virri, M. Gronblad, S. Holm, A.M. Kaigle and E. Karaharju, Inflammatory cells in full-thickness anulus injury in pigs - An experimental disc herniation animal model, Spine 23 (1998), 524-529.
47. T.R. Hales and B.P. Bernard, Epidemiology of work-related musculoskeletal disorders, The Orthopedic Clinics of North America 27 (1996), 679-709.
48. M. Hasue, Pain and the nerve root: an interdisciplinary approach, Spine 18 (1993), 2053-2058.
49. S. Imai, S. Hukuda and T. Maeda, Dually innervating nociceptive networks in the rat lumbar posterior longitudinal ligaments, Spine 20 (1995), 2086-2092.
50. S. Imai, Y.T. Konttinen, Y. Tokunaga, T. Maeda, S. Hukuda and S. Santavirta, An ultrastructural study of calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive nerve fibers innervating the rat posterior longitudinal ligament - A morphologic basis for their possible efferent actions, Spine 22 (1997), 1941-1947.
51. M. Jager and A. Luttmann, The load on the lumbar spine during asymmetrical bi-manual materials handling, Ergonomics 35 (1992), 783-805.
52. H.X. Jiang, G. Russell, V.J. Raso, M.J. Moreau, D.L. Hill and K.M. Bagnall, The nature and distribution of the innervation of human supraspinal and interspinal ligaments, Spine 20 (1995), 869-876.
53. M.J. Jorgensen, W.S. Marras, K.P. Granata and J.W. Wiand, MRI-derived moment-arms of the female and male spine loading muscles, Clinical Biomechanics 16 (2001), 182-193.
54. M.J. Jorgensen, W.S. Marras, P. Gupta and T.R. Waters, The effect of torso flexion on the lumbar torso extensor muscle sagittal plane moment arms, The Spine Journal 3 (2003), 363-369.
55. M.J. Jorgensen, W.S. Marras, F.W. Smith and M.H. Pope, Sagittal plane moment arms of the female lumbar region rectus abdominus in an upright neutral torso posture, Clinical Biomechanics 20 (2005), 242-246.
56. S. Kallakuri, J.M. Cavanaugh and D.C. Blagoev, An immunohistochemical study of innervation of lumbar spinal dura and longitudinal ligaments, Spine 23 (1998), 403-411.
57. J.L. Kelsey, P.B. Githens, A.A. White, T.R. Holford, S.D. Walter, T. O'Connor, A.M. Ostfled, U. Weil, U. Weil, W.O. Southwick and J.A. Calogero, An epidemiologic study of lifting and twisting on the job and risk for acute prolapsed lumbar intervertebral disc, Journal of Orthopaedic Research 2 (1984), 61-66.
58. I. Kingma, C.T.M. Baten, P. Dolan, H.M. Toussaint, J.H. Van Dieen, M.P. De Looze and M.A. Adams, Lumbar loading during lifting: a comparative study of three measurement techniques, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 11 (2001), 337-345.
59. I. Kingma, M.P. De Looze, H.M. Toussaint, J.G. Klijnsma and T.B.M. Bruijnen, Validation of a full body 3-D dynamic link segment model, Human Movement Science 15 (1996), 833-860.
60. N.D. Kishino, T.J. Mayer, R.J. Gatchel, M.M. Parrish, C.A. Anderson, L. Gustin and V. Mooney, Quantification of lumbar function part 4: isometric and isokinetic lifting simulation in normal subjects and low-back dysfunction patients, Spine 10 (1985), 921-927.
61. S. Kobayashi, H. Yoshizawa, and S. Nakai, Experimental study on the dynamics of lumbosacral nerve root circulation, Spine 25 (2000), 298-305.
62. M.G. Krai, Z. Xiong and R.E. Study, Alteration of Na+ currents in dorsal root ganglion neurons from rats with a painful neuropathy, Pain 81 (1999), 15-24.
63. S. Kumar, Cumulative load as a risk factor for back pain, Spine 15 (1990), 1311-1316.
64. T.P.J. Leskinen, H.R. Stalhammer, I. Kuorinka and J.D.G. Troup, Compressive load at L5/S1 spine level as a biomechanical factor during various lifting techniques, Ergonomics 25 (1982), 451-451.
65. R.L. Lieber and J. Friden, Muscle damage is not a function of muscle force but active muscle strain, Journal of Applied Physiology 74 (1993), 520-526.
66. R.L. Lieber, T.M. Woodburn and J. Friden, Muscle damage induced by eccentric contractions of 25% strain, Journal of Applied Physiology 70 (1991), 2498-2507.
67. L. Lindbeck and U.P. Arborelius, Inertial effects from single body segments in dynamic analysis of lifting, Ergonomics 34 (1991), 421-433.
68. S.J. Lipson and H.C. Muir, Proteoglycans in experimental intervertebral disc degeneration, Spine 6 (1981), 194-210.
69. J.C. Lotz, O.K. Colliou, J.R. Chin, N.A. Duncan and E. Liebenberg, 1998 Volvo Award winner in biomechanical studies - Compression-induced degeneration of the intervertebral disc: An in vivo mouse model and finite-element study, Spine 23 (1998), 2493-2506.
70. J.E. Macintosh, N. Bogduk and M.J. Pearcy, The effects of flexion on the geometry and action of the lumbar erector spinae, Spine 18 (1993), 884-893.
71. W.S. Marras, K.G. Davis and M.J. Jorgensen, Spine loading as a function of gender, Spine 27 (2002), 2514-2520.
72. W.S. Marras, K.G. Davis and M.J. Jorgensen, Gender influences on spine loads during complex Lifting, The Spine Journal 3 (2003), 93-99.
73. W.S. Marras and K.P. Granata, Spine loading during trunk lateral bending motions, Journal of Biomechanics 30 (1997), 697-703.
74. W.S. Marras and K.P. Granata, The development of an EMG-assisted model to assess spine loading during whole-body free-dynamic lifting, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 7 (1997), 259-268.
75. W.S. Marras, M.J. Jorgensen, K.P. Granata and B. Wiand, Female and male trunk geometry: size and prediction of the spine loading trunk muscles derived from MRI, Clinical Biomechanics 16 (2001), 38-46.
76. W.S. Marras, S.A. Lavender, S.E. Leurgans, S.L. Rajulu, W.G. Allread, F.A. Fathallah and S.A. Ferguson, The role of dynamic three-dimensional motion in occupationally-related low back disorders, the effects of workplace factors, trunk position, and trunk motion characteristics on risk of injury, Spine 18 (1993), 617-628.
77. W.S. Marras and C.M. Sommerich, A three dimensional motion model of loads on the lumbar spine: II. model validation, Human Factors 33 (1991), 139-149.
78. T. Matsui, K. Takahashi, M. Moriya, S. Tanaka, N. Kawahara and K. Tomita, Quantitative analysis of edema in the dorsal nerve roots induced by acute mechanical compression, Spine 23 (1998), 1931-1936.
79. S. Matsunaga, T. Sakou, E. Taketomi and K. Nakanisi, Effects of strain distribution in the intervertebral discs on the progression of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligaments, Spine 21 (1996), 184-189.
80. R.F. McCarron, M.W. Wimpee, P.G. Hudkins and G.S. Laros, The inflammatory effect of nucleus pulposus: a possible element in the pathogenesis of low-back pain, Spine 12 (1987), 760-764.
81. K.K. McCully and J.A. Faulkner, Injury to skeletal muscle fibers of mice following lengthening contractions, Journal of Applied Physiology 59 (1985), 119-126.
82. K.K. McCully and J.A. Faulkner, Characteristics of lengthening contractions associated with injury to skeletal muscle fibers, Journal of Applied Physiology 61 (1986), 293-299.
83. S.M. McGill, The biomechanics of low back injury: Implications on current practice in industry and the clinic, Journal of Biomechanics 30 (1997), 465-475.
84. S.M. McGill and R.W. Norman, Partitioning of the L4-L5 dynamic moment into disc, ligamentous, and muscular components during lifting, Spine 11 (1986), 666-678.
85. S.M. McGill and R.W. Norman, Effects of an anatomically detailed erector spinae model on 14/15 disk compression and shear, Journal of Biomechanics 20 (1987), 591-600.
86. K.E. Miller, R.G. Zylstra and J.B. Standridge, The geriatric patient: A systematic approach to maintaining health (Vol. 61, pg 1089, 2000), American Family Physician 62 (2000), 1519-1520.
87. G. A. Mirka, D.P. Kelaher, A. Baker, A. Harrison and J.R. Davis, Selective activation of the external oblique musculature during axial torque production, Clinical Biomechanics 12 (1997), 172-180.
88. G.A. Mirka and W.S. Marras, A stochastic model of trunk muscle coactivation during trunk bending, Spine 18 (1993), 1396-1409.
89. R.J. Moore, The vertebral end-plate: what do we know? European Spine Journal 9 (2000), 92-96.
90. V.C. Mow, C.S. Proctor and M.A. Kelly, Biomechanics of the articular cartilage, in: Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System, M. Nordin and V. Frankel, eds, Lea and Febiger, Phildelphia, PA, 2004.
91. J.B. Myklebust, F.A. Pintar, N. Yoganandan, J.F. Cusick, D. Maiman, T.J. Myers and A. Sances, Tensile strength of spinal ligaments, Spine 13 (1988), 526-531.
92. S.I. Nakamura, K. Takahashi, Y. Takahashi, T. Morinaga, Y. Shimada and H. Moriya, Origin of nerves supplying the posterior portion of lumbar intervertebral discs in rats, Spine 21 (1996), 917-924.
93. National Academy of Sciences, Musculoskeletal disorders and the workplace: Low back and upper extremeties, National Academy Press, Washington D.C, 2001.
94. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Work practices guide in manual lifting, 1981, pp. 81-122, Cincinnati, OH, US Department of Human and Health Services. Ref Type: Report.
95. R.W. Norman, R.P Wells, P. Neumann, J. Frank, H.S. Shannon and M.S. Kerr, A comparison of peak vs. cumulative physical work exposure risk factors for the reporting of low back pain in the automotive industry, Clinical Biomechanics 13 (1998), 561-573.
96. M.A. Nussbaum and D.B. Chaffin, Evaluation of artificial neural network modelling to predict torso muscle activity, Ergonomics 39 (1996), 1430-1444.
97. M.A. Nussbaum and D.B. Chaffin, Lumbar muscle force estimation using a subject-invariant 5- parameter EMG-based model, Journal of Biomechanics 31 (1998), 667-672.
98. M.A. Nussbaum, D.B. Chaffin and B.J. Martin, A back-propagation neural network model of lumbar muscle recruitment during moderate static exertions, Journal of Biomechanics 28 (1995), 1015-1024.
99. M.A. Nussbaum, D.B. Chaffin and C.J. Rechtien, Muscle lines-of-action predicted forces in optimization-based spine muscle modeling, Journal of Biomechanics 28 (1995), 401-409.
100. K. Olmarker, N. Danielsen, C. Nordborg and B.L. Rydevik, Effects of chondroitinase ABC on intrathecal and peripheral-nerve tissue-an invivo experimental-study on rabbits, Spine 16 (1991), 43-45.
101. K. Olmarker, S. Holm and B.L. Rydevik, Improtance of compression onset rate for the degree of impairmanet of impulse propagation in experimental compression injury of the porcine cauda equina, Spine 15 (1990), 416-419.
102. O.L. Osti, B. Vernon-Roberts and R.D. Fraser, Anulus tears and intervertebral-disk degeneration-an experimental-study using an animal-model, Spine 15 (1990), 762-767.
103. A.C. Ozaktay, S. Kallakuri and J.M. Cavanaugh, Phospholipase A(2) sensitivity of the dorsal root and dorsal root ganglion, Spine 23 (1998), 1297-1306.
104. A. Plamondon, M. Gagnon and P. Desjardins, Validation of two 3-D segment models to calculate the net reaction forces and moments at the L(5)/S-l joint in lifting, Clinical Biomechanics 11 (1996), 101-110.
105. J.R. Potvin, R.W. Norman, M.E. Eckenrath, S.M. McGill and G.W. Bennett, Regression models for the prediction of dynamic 14/15 compression forces during lifting, Ergonomics 35 (1992), 187-201.
106. N.P. Reeves and J. Cholewicki, Modeling the human lumbar spine for assessing spinal loads, stability, and risk of injury, Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering 31 (2003), 73-139.
107. S. Roberts, S.M. Eisenstein, J. Menage, E.H. Evans and I.K. Ashton, Mechanoreceptors in intervertebral discs - Morphology, distribution, and neuropeptides, Spine 20 (1995), 2645-2651.
108. B.L. Rydevik, Where does the pain come from? Bulletin Hospital For Joint Diseases 55 (1996), 191-194.
109. B.L. Rydevik, R.R. Myers and H.C Powell, Pressure increase in the dorsal-root ganglion following mechanical compression-closed compartment syndrome in nerve roots, Spine 14 (1989), 574-576.
110. B.L. Rydevik, R.A. Pedowitz, A.R. Hargens, M. R. Swenson, R.R. Myers and S.R. Garfin, Effects of acute, graded compression on spinal nerve root function and structure: an experimental study of the pig cauda equina, Spine 16 (1991), 487-493.
111. A.B. Schultz and G.B.J. Andersson, Analysis of loads on the lumbar spine, Spine 6 (1981), 76-82.
112. O.M. Sejersted and R.H. Westgaard, Occuptaional muscle pain and injury; scientific challenge, European Journal of Applied Physiology 57 (1988), 271-274.
113. S.A. Shirazi-Adl, A.M. Ahmed and S.C. Shrivastava, A finite element study of a lumbar motion segment subjected to pure sagittal plane moments, Journal of Biomechanics 19 (1986), 331-350.
114. I.A.F. Stokes and M.G. Gardner-Morse, Lumbar spinal muscle activation synergies predicted by multi-criteria cost function, Journal of Biomechanics 34 (2001), 733-740.
115. K. Suseki, Y. Takahashi, K. Takahashi, T. Chiba, M. Yamagata and H. Moriya, Sensory nerve fibres from lumbar intervertebral discs pass through rami communicantes. A possible pathway for discogenic low back pain, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 80 (1998), 737-742.
116. C.G. Sutarno and S.M. McGill, Isovelocity investigation of the lengthening behavior of the erector spinae muscles, European Journal of Applied Physiology 70 (1995), 146-153.
117. J.R. Taylor and L.T. Twomey, Age changes in lumbar zygapophyseal joints: observations on structure and function, Spine 11 (1986), 739-745.
118. J.H. Van Dieen and I. Kingma, Total trunk muscle force and spinal compression are lower in asymmetric moments as compared to pure extension moments, Journal of Biomechanics 32 (1999), 681-687.
119. J.H. Van Dieen, H. Weinans and H.M. Toussaint, Fractures of the lumbar vertebral endplate in the etiology of low back pain: a hypothesis on the causative role of spinal compression in aspecific low back pain, Medical Hypotheses 53 (1999), 246-252.
120. J.L. Wang, M. Parnianpour, S.A. Shirazi-Adl and A.E. Engin, Viscoelastic finite-element analysis of a lumbar motion segment in combined compression and sagittal flexion - Effect of loading rate, Spine 25 (2000), 310-318.
121. M.T. Williams, M. Solomonow, B.H. Zhou, R.V. Baratta and M. Harris, Multifidus spasms elicited by prolonged lumbar flexion, Spine 25 (2000), 2916-2924.
122. S.N. Wood, D.J. Pearsall, R. Ross and J.G. Reid, Trunk muscle parameters determined from MRI for lean to obese males, Clinical Biomechanics 11 (1996), 139-144.
123. V.R. Yingling, J.P. Callaghan and S.M. McGill, Dynamic loading affects the mechanical properties and failure site of porcine spines, Clinical Biomechanics 12 (1997), 301-305.
124. V.R. Yingling and S.M. McGill, Anterior shear of spinal motion segments - Kinematics, kinetics, and resultant injuries observed in a porcine model, Spine 24 (1999), 1882-1889.