Cardiovascular disease prevention tailored for women

Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy

Volumn 6, Issue 8, 2008, Pages 1123-1134

  Engberding, Niels ^a   Wenger, Nanette K ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular; Prevention; Risk Assessment; Women

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; APOLIPOPROTEIN A1; APOLIPOPROTEIN B; ASCORBIC ACID; BETA CAROTENE; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CLOPIDOGREL; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; FOLIC ACID; GLUCOSE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; INTERLEUKIN 6; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PRAVASTATIN; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; VITAMIN B GROUP;

ABDOMINAL OBESITY; BODY HEIGHT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET THERAPY; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; FAMILY HISTORY; FEMALE; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORTALITY; NICOTINE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING CESSATION;

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, NON-STEROIDAL; ASPIRIN; BODY MASS INDEX; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHOLESTEROL, HDL; CHOLESTEROL, LDL; CORONARY DISEASE; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; LIFE STYLE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; SEX FACTORS; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

EID: 55249116539     PISSN: 14779072     EISSN: 17448344     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14779072.6.8.1123     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Rosamond W, Flegal K, Furie K et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2008 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 117(4), e25-e146 (2008).
2. Isles CG, Hole DJ, Hawthorne VM, Lever AF. Relation between coronary risk and coronary mortality in women of the Renfrew and Paisley survey: comparison with men. Lancet 339(8795), 702-706 (1992).
3. Lerner DJ, Kannel WB. Patterns of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality in the sexes: a 26-year follow-up of the Framingham population. Am. Heart J. 111(2), 383-390 (1986).
4. Kannel WB, Wilson PW. Risk factors that attenuate the female coronary disease advantage. Arch. Intern. Med. 155(1), 57-61 (1995).
5. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T et al.; Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. JAMA 280(7), 605-613 (1998).
6. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288(3), 321-333 (2002).
7. Harris DJ, Douglas PS. Enrollment of women in cardiovascular clinical trials funded by the National Heart Lung, and Blood Institute. N. Engl. J. Med. 343(7), 475-480 (2000).
8. Blauwet LA, Redberg RE The role of sex-specific results reporting in cardiovascular disease. Cardiol. Rev. 15(6), 275-278 (2007).
9. Eidelman RS, Hebert PR, Weisman SM, Hennekens CH. An update on aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 163(17), 2006-2010 (2003).
10. Ridker PM, Cook NR, Lee IM et al. A randomized trial of low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 352(13), 1293-1304 (2005).
11. Mosca L, Appel LJ, Benjamin EJ et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women. Circulation 109(5), 672-693 (2004).
12. Mosca I., Banka CL, Benjamin EJ et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: 2007 update. Circulation 115(11), 1481-1501 (2007).
13. Mosca L, Grundy SM, Judelson D et al. Guide to preventive cardiology for women. AHA/ACC Scientific Statement Consensus panel statement. Circulation 99(18), 2480-2484 (1999).
14. Wenger NK. Coronary heart disease: the female heart is vulnerable. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 46(3), 199-229 (2003).
15. Ford ES, Capewell S. Coronary heart disease mortality among young adults in the US. from 1980 through 2002: concealed leveling of mortality rates. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 50(22), 2128-2132 (2007).
16. Ford ES, Giles WH, Mokdad AH. Increasing prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among U.S. Adults. Diabetes Care 27(10), 2444-2449 (2004).
17. Lorenzo C, Williams K, Hunt KJ, Haffner SM. Trend in the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome and its impact on cardiovascular disease incidence: the San Antonio Heart Study. Diabetes Care 29(3), 625-630 (2006).
18. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE et al. Trends in the incidence of coronary heart disease and changes in diet and lifestyle in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 343 (8), 530-537 (2000).
19. Stamler J, Stamler R, Neaton JD et al. Low risk-factor profile and long-term cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality and life expectancy: findings for 5 large cohorts of young adult and middle-aged men and women. JAMA 282(21), 2012-2018 (1999).
20. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J et al. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA 290(7), 891-897 (2003).
21. Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT et al. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA 290(7), 898-904 (2003).
22. Lowe LP, Greenland P, Ruth KJ, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Stamler J. Impact of major cardiovascular disease risk factors, particularly in combination, on 22-year mortality in women and men. Arch. Intern. Med. 158(18), 2007-2014 (1998).
23. Jousilahti P, Vartiainen E, Tuomilehto J, Puska P. Sex, age, cardiovascular risk factors, and coronary heart disease: a prospective follow-up study of 14 786 middle-aged men and women in Finland. Circulation 99(9), 1165-1172 (1999).
24. Jonsdottir LS, Sigfusson N, Gudnason V, Sigvaldason H, Thorgeirsson G. Do lipids, blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking confer equal risk of myocardial infarction in women as in men? The Reykjavik Study. J. Cardiovasc. Risk 9(2), 67-76 (2002).
25. Daviglus ML, Stamler J, Pirzada A et al. Favorable cardiovascular risk profile in young women and long-term risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. JAMA 292(13), 1588-1592 (2004).
26. Matthews KA, Kuller LH, Chang Y, Edmundowicz D. Premenopausal risk factors for coronary and aortic calcification: a 20-year follow-up in the healthy women study. Prev. Med. 45(4), 302-308 (2007).
27. Sharrett AR, Ballantyne CM, Coady SA et al. Coronary heart disease prediction from lipoprotein cholesterol levels, triglycerides, lipoprotein(a), apolipoproteins A-I and B, and HDL density subfractions: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Circulation 104(10), 1108-1113 (2001).
28. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Cook NR, Bradwin G, Buring JE. Non-HDL cholesterol, apolipoproteins A-I and B100, standard lipid measures, lipid ratios, and CRP as risk factors for cardiovascular disease in women. JAMA 294(3), 326-333 (2005).
29. Bass KM, Newschaffer CJ, Klag MJ, Bush TL. Plasma lipoprotein levels as predictors of cardiovascular death in women. Arch. Intern. Med. 153(19), 2209-2216 (1993).
30. Shai I, Rimm EB, Hankinson SE et al. Multivariate assessment of lipid parameters as predictors of coronary heart disease among postmenopausal women: potential implications for clinical guidelines. Circulation 110(18), 2824-2830 (2004).
31. Ingelsson E, Schaefer EJ, Contois JH et al. Clinical utility of different lipid measures for prediction of coronary heart disease in men and women. JAMA 298(7), 776-785 (2007).
32. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 106(25), 3143-3421 (2002).
33. Screening adults for lipid disorders: recommendations and rationale. Am. J. Prev. Med. 20(3 Suppl.), 73-76 (2001).
34. Stefanick ML, Mackey S, Sheehan M, Ellsworth N, Haskell WL, Wood PD. Effects of diet and exercise in men and postmenopausal women with low levels of HDL cholesterol and high levels of LDL cholesterol. N. Engl. J. Med. 339 (1), 12-20 (1998).
35. Kraus WE, Houmard JA, Duscha BD et al. Effects of the amount and intensity of exercise on plasma lipoproteins. N. Engl. J. Med. 347(19), 1483-1492 (2002).
36. Manolio TA, Pearson TA, Wenger NK, Barrett-Connor E, Payne GH, Harlan WR. Cholesterol and heart disease in older persons and women. Review of an NHLBI workshop. Ann. Epidemiol. 2 (1-2), 161-176 (1992).
37. Criqui MH, Heiss G, Cohn R et al. Plasma triglyceride level and mortality from coronary heart disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 328(17), 1220-1225 (1993).
38. Major outcomes in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin vs usual care: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT-LLT). JAMA 288(23), 2998-3007 (2002).
39. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 360(9346), 1623-1630 (2002).
40. Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels: results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air Force/Texas coronary atherosclerosis prevention study. JAAM 279(20), 1615-1622 (1998).
41. Sever PS, Dahlof B, Poulter NR et al. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial - Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 361(9364), 1149-1158 (2003).
42. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N. Engl J. Med. 333(20), 1301-1307 (1995).
43. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 360 (9326), 7-22 (2002).
44. Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in Type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364(9435), 685-696 (2004).
45. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH et al. Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. N. Engl. J. Med. 350(15), 1495-1504 (2004).
46. LaRosa JC, Grundy SM, Waters DD et al. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 352(14), 1425-1435 (2005).
47. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Metz CN et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Circulation 110(2), 227-239 (2004).
48. Walsh JM, Pignone M. Drug treatment of hyperlipidemia in woman. JAMA 291(18), 2243-2252 (2004).
49. Wenger NK, Lewis SJ, Welty FK, Herrington DM, Bittner V. Beneficial effects of aggressive low-density lipoprotein cholesterol lowering in women with stable coronary heart disease in the Treating to New Targets (TNT) study. Heart 94 (4), 434-439 (2008).
50. Ansell BJ, Fonarow GC, Maki KC, Dicklin MR, Bell M, Davidson MH. Reduced treatment success in lipid management among women with coronary heart disease or risk equivalents: results of a national survey. Am. Heart J. 152(5), 976-981 (2006).
51. Colditz GA, Bonita R, Scampfer MJ et al. Cigarette smoking and risk of stroke in middle-aged women. N. Engl. J. Med. 318(15), 937-941 (1988).
52. Willett WC, Green A, Stampfer MJ et al. Relative and absolute excess risks of coronary heart disease among women who smoke cigarettes. N. Engl. J. Med. 317(21), 1303-1309 (1987).
53. Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ et al. Smoking cessation and time course of decreased risks of coronary heart disease in middle-aged women. Arch. Intern. Med. 154(2), 169-175 (1994).
54. Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ et al. Smoking cessation in relation to total mortality rates in women. A prospective cohort study. Ann. Intern. Med. 119(10), 992-1000 (1993).
55. Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Shapiro S. Decline in the risk of myocardial infarction among women who stop smoking. N. Engl. J. Med. 322(4), 213-217 (1990).
56. Gregg EW, Gu Q, Cheng YJ, Narayan KM, Cowie CC. Mortality trends in men and women with diabetes, 1971 to 2000. Ann. Intern. Med. 147(3), 149-155 (2007).
57. Gu K, Cowie CC, Harris MI. Diabetes and decline in heart disease mortality in US adults. JAMA 281(14), 1291-1297 (1999).
58. Natarajan S, Liao Y, Cao G, Lipsitz SR, McGee DL. Sex differences in risk for coronary heart disease mortality associated with diabetes and established coronary heart disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 163(14), 1735-1740 (2003).
59. Hu G, Jousilahti P, Qiao Q, Peltonen M, Katoh S, Tuomilehto J. The gender-specific impact of diabetes and myocardial infarction at baseline and during follow-up on mortality from all causes and coronary heart disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45(9), 1413-1418 (2005).
60. Huxley R, Barzi F, Woodward M. Excess risk of fatal coronary heart disease associated with diabetes in men and women: meta-analysis of 37 prospective cohort studies. BMJ 332(7533), 73-78 (2006).
61. Walden CE, Knopp RH, Wahl PW, Beach KW, Strandness E Jr. Sex differences in the effect of diabetes mellitus on lipoprotein triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations. N. Engl. J. Med. 311(15), 953-959 (1984).
62. American Diabetes Association: clinical practice recommendations 2002. Diabetes Care 25 (Suppl. 1), S1-S147 (2002).
63. Ratner RE. Prevention of Type 2 diabetes in women with previous gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 30 (Suppl. 2), S242-S245 (2007).
64. Schaefer-Graf UM, Buchanan TA, Xiang AH, Peters RK, Kjos SL. Clinical predictors for a high risk for the development of diabetes mellitus in the early puerperium in women with recent gestational diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 186(4), 751-756 (2002).
65. Levitzky YS, Pencina MJ, D'Agostino RB et al. Impact of impaired fasting glucose on cardiovascular disease: the Framingham Heart Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51(3), 264-270 (2008).
66. Fox CS, Pencina MJ, Meigs JB, Vasan RS, Levitzky YS, D'Agostino RB Sr. Trends in the incidence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus from the 1970s to the 1990s: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 113(25), 2914-2918 (2006).
67. Lloyd-Jones DM, Liu K, Colangelo LA et al. Consistently stable or decreased body mass index in young adulthood and longitudinal changes in metabolic syndrome components: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. Circulation 115(8), 1004-1011 (2007).
68. Liu S, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ et al. A prospective study of dietary glycemic load, carbohydrate intake, and risk of coronary heart disease in US women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71(6), 1455-1461 (2000).
69. Hu FB. Diet and cardiovascular disease prevention the need for a paradigm shift. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 50(1), 22-24 (2007).
70. Bazzano LA, Li TY, Joshipura KJ, Hu FB. Intake of fruit, vegetables, and fruit juices and risk of diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 31(7), 1311-1317 (2008).
71. Weinstein AR, Sesso HD, Lee IM et al. Relationship of physical activity vs body mass index with Type 2 diabetes in women. JAMA 292(10), 1188-1194 (2004).
72. Hu FB, Willett WC, Li T, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Manson JE. Adiposity as compared with physical activity in predicting mortality among women. N. Engl. J. Med. 351(26), 2694-2703 (2004).
73. Zhang C, Rexrode KM, van Dam RM, Li TY, Hu FB. Abdominal obesity and the risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: sixteen years of follow-up in US women. Circulation 117(13), 1658-1667 (2008).
74. Manson JE, Greenland P, LaCroix AZ et al. Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of cardiovascular events in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 347(10), 716-725 (2002).
75. Mora S, Redberg RF, Cui Y et al. Ability of exercise testing to predict cardiovascular and all-cause death in asymptornatic women: a 20-year follow-up of the lipid research clinics prevalence study. JAMA 290(12), 1600-1607 (2003).
76. Sui X, LaMonte MJ, Blair SN. Cardiorespitatory fitness as a predictor of nonfatal cardiovascular events in asymptornatic women and men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 165(12), 1413-1423 (2007).
77. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 289(19), 2560-2572 (2003).
78. Cornoni-Huntley J, LaCroix AZ, Havlik RJ. Race and sex differentials in the impact of hypertension in the United States. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 149(4), 780-788 (1989).
79. The ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 288(23), 2981-2997 (2002).
80. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Anderson G, Psaty BM et al. Hypertension and its treatment in postmenopausal women: baseline data from the Women's Health Initiative. Hypertension 36(5), 780-789 (2000).
81. Colditz GA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of age at menarche, parity, age at first birth, and coronary heart disease in women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 126(5), 861-870 (1987).
82. Ness RB, Harris T, Cobb J et al. Number of pregnancies and the subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 328(21), 1528-1533 (1993).
83. Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of parental history of myocardial infarction and coronary heart disease in women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 123(1), 48-58 (1986).
84. Sesso HD, Lee IM, Gaziano JM, Rexrode KM, Glynn RJ, Buring JE. Maternal and paternal history of myocardial infarction and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women. Circulation 104(4), 393-398 (2001).
85. Rich-Edwards JW, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ et al. Height and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 142(9), 909-917 (1995).
86. Ferketich AK, Schwartzbaum JA, Frid DJ, Moeschberger ML. Depression as an antecedent to heart disease among women and men in the NHANES I study. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch. Intern. Med. 160(9), 1261-1268 (2000).
87. Mendes de Leon CF, Krumholz HM, Seeman TS et al. Depression and risk of coronary heart disease in elderly men and women: New Haven EPESE, 1982-1991. Established Populations For The Epidemiologic Studies Of The Elderly. Arch. Intern. Med. 158(21), 2341-2348 (1998).
88. Vaccarino V, McClure C, Johnson BD et al. Depression, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk. Psychosom. Med. 70(1), 40-48 (2008).
89. Mallik S, Spertus JA, Reid KJ et al. Depressive symptoms after acute myocardial infarction: evidence for highest rates in younger women. Arch. Intern. Med. 166(8), 876-883 (2006).
90. Vaccarino V, Parsons L, Every NR, Barron HV, Krumholz HM. Sex-based differences in early mortality after myocardial infarction. National Registry of Myocardial Infarction 2 Participants. N. Engl. J. Med. 341(4), 217-225 (1999).
91. Hu FB, Bronner L, Willett WC et al. Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women. JAMA 287(14), 1815-1821 (2002).
92. Iso H, Kobayashi M, Ishihara J et al. Intake of fish and n3 fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among Japanese: the Japan Public Health Center-Based (JPHC) Study Cohort 1. Circulation 113(2), 195-202 (2006).
93. Burdge G. α-linolenic acid metabolism in men and women: nutritional and biological implications. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 7(2), 137-144 (2004).
94. Albert CM, Oh K, Whang W et al. Dietary α-linolenic acid intake and risk of sudden cardiac death and coronary heart disease. Circulation 112(21), 3232-3238 (2005).
95. Brouwer IA, Katan MB, Zock PL. Dietary α-linolenic acid is associated with reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. J. Nutr. 134(4), 919-922 (2004).
96. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet 354(9177), 447-455 (1999).
97. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 369 (9567), 1090-1098 (2007).
98. Final report on the aspirin component of the ongoing Physicians' Health Study. Steering Committee of the Physicians' Health Study Research Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 321(3), 129-135 (1989).
99. Berger JS, Roncaglioni MC, Avanzini F, Pangrazzi I, Tognoni G, Brown DL. Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events in women and men: a sex-specific meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 295(3), 306-313 (2006).
100. Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB et al. Folate and vitamin B6 from diet and supplements in relation to risk of coronary heart disease among women. JAMA 279(5), 359-364 (1998).
101. Bonaa KH, Njolstad I, Ueland PM et al. Homocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(15), 1578-1588 (2006).
102. Lonn E, Yusuf S, Arnold MJ et al. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(15), 1567-1577 (2006).
103. Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: the Women's Health Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 294(1), 56-65 (2005).
104. Cook NR, Albert CM, Gaziano JM et al. A randomized factorial trial of vitamins C and E and β carotene in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: results from the Women's Antioxidant Cardiovascular Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 167(15), 1610-1618 (2007).
105. Ridker PM, Buring JE, Rifai N, Cook NR. Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women: the Reynolds Risk Score. JAMA 297(6), 611-619 (2007).
106. Wenger NK. The Reynolds Risk Score: improved accuracy for cardiovascular risk prediction in women? Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 4(7), 366-367 (2007).
107. Michos ED, Vasamreddy CR, Becker DM et al. Women with a low Framingham risk score and a family history of premature coronary heart disease have a high prevalence of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis. Am. Heart J. 150(6), 1276-1281 (2005).
108. D'Agostino RB Sr, Vasan RS, Pencina MJ et al. General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 117(6), 743-753 (2008).
109. Lee AJ, Price JF, Russell MJ, Smith FB, van Wijk MC, Fowkes FG. Improved prediction of faral myocardial infarction using the ankle brachial index in addition to conventional risk factors: the Edinburgh Artery Study. Circulation 110 (19), 3075-3080 (2004).
110. Rossi R, Nuzzo A, Origliani G, Modena MG. Prognostic role of flow-mediated dilation and cardiac risk factors in post-menopausal women. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51(10), 997-1002 (2008).
111. Tice JA, Browner W, Tracy RP, Cummings SR. The relation of C-reactive protein levels to total and cardiovascular mortality in older U.S. women. Am. J. Med. 114(3), 199-205 (2003).
112. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 342(12), 836-843 (2000).
113. Apple FS, Pearce LA, Chung A, Ler R, Murakami MM. Multiple biomarker use for detection of adverse events in patients presenting with symptoms suggestive of acute coronary syndrome. Clin. Chem. 53(5), 874-881 (2007).
114. Raggi P, Shaw LJ, Berman DS, Callister TQ. Gender-based differences in the prognostic value of coronary calcification. J. Womens Health (Larchmt) 13(3), 273-283 (2004).
115. Raggi P, Gongora MC, Gopal A, Callister TQ, Budoff MJ, Shaw LJ. Coronary artery calcium to predict all-cause mortality in elderly men and women. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 52 (1), 17-23 (2008).
116. Bellasi A, Lacey C, Taylor AJ et al. Comparison of prognostic usefulness of coronary artery calcium in men versus women (results from a meta- and pooled analysis estimating all-cause mortality and coronary heart disease death or myocardial infarction). Am. J. Cardiol. 100(3), 409-414 (2007).
117. de Torbal A, Boersma E, Kors JA et al. Incidence of recognized and unrecognized myocardial infarction in men and women aged 55 and older: the Rotterdam Study. Eur. Heart J. 27(6), 729-736 (2006).
118. Kannel WB, Abbott RD. Incidence and prognosis of unrecognized myocardial infarction. An update on the Framingham study. N. Engl. J. Med. 311(18), 1144-1147 (1984).
119. CDC. Trends in ischemic heart disease death rates for blacks and whites - United States, 1981-1995. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 47(44), 945-949 (1998).
120. CDC. Compressed Mortality File 1979-1998. CDC WONDER On-line Database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File CMF 1968-1988, Series 20, No. 2A, 2000 and CMF 1989-1998, Series 20, No. 2E, 2003. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, USA (2008).
121. NCHS. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hyattsville, MD, USA (2005).