Has electromagnetic energy in the band 0.1-100 GHz useful medical applications? A review of mechanisms and biological database offers dim prospects

IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science

Volumn 36, Issue 4 PART 3, 2008, Pages 1638-1649

  Swicord, Mays ^a   Balzano, Quirino ^b  

^a MOTOROLA INC   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

Medical application of radio frequency (RF); Nonthermal bioeffect inconsistency; Research directions; State of research

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS; DATABASE SYSTEMS; ELECTRIC FIELDS; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES; ELECTROMAGNETISM; IONIZATION OF GASES; MAGNETIC FIELDS; MECHANISMS; MEDICAL APPLICATIONS; MEDICAL IMAGING; RADIO SYSTEMS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ENERGY; IONIZED GASES; LOW-FREQUENCY FIELDS; MEDICAL APPLICATION OF RADIO FREQUENCY (RF); NON-THERMAL; NONTHERMAL BIOEFFECT INCONSISTENCY; RADIO-FREQUENCY; RESEARCH DIRECTIONS; RF FIELDING; STATE OF RESEARCH; TEMPERATURE ELEVATION; TERAHERTZ FREQUENCIES; TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY;

IMAGING TECHNIQUES;

EID: 50249122194     PISSN: 00933813     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/TPS.2008.927165     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. R. Nuccitelli, U. Pliquett, X. Chen, W. Ford, S. R. James, S. J. Beebe, J. F. Kolb, and K. H. Schoenbach, "Nanosecond pulsed electric fields cause melanomas to self-destruct," Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. vol. 343, no. 2, pp. 351-360, 2006.
2. R. Higashikubo, V. O. Culbreth, D. R. Spitz, M. C. LaRegina and W. F. Pickard, "Small temperature increase affect cell physiology," Int. J. Hypertherm. submitted for publication.
3. N. Lacetera, U. Bernabucci, D. Scalia, L. Basirico, P. Morera and A. Nardone, "Heat stress elicits different responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from browm Swiss and Holstein cows," J. Dairy Sci. vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 4606-4612, 2006.
4. A. R. Sheppard, M. L. Swicord, and Q. Balzano, "Quantitative, evaluations of mechanisms of radiofrequency interactions with biological molecules and processes," Accepted for publication in Health Phys.
5. R. Nuccitelli, "Endogenous ionic currents and DC electric fields in multicellular animal tissues," Bioelectromagnetics, pp. 147-157, 1992. Suppl 1.
6. R. Nuccitelli, "Endogenous electric fields in embryos during development, regeneration arid wound healing," Radiat. Prot. Dosim. vol. 106, no. 4, pp. 375-383, 2003.
7. R. Hine, Membrane, 'The Facts on File Dictionary of Biology', 3rd ed. New York: Checkmark, 1999, p. 198.
8. [Online]. Available: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/ mempot.html#c1
9. R. B. Borgens, A. R. Blight, D. J. Murphy, and L. Stewart, "Transected dorsal column axons within the guinea pig spinal cord regenerate in the presence of an applied electric field," J. Comp. Neurol., vol. 250, no. 2, pp. 168-180, Aug. 1986.
10. Y. H. Barsoum and W. F. Pickard, "Radio-frequency rectification in electrogenic and nonelectrogenic cells of Chara and Nitella," J. Membr. Biol., vol. 65, no. 1/2, pp. 81-87, Feb. 1982.
11. W. F. Pickard and F. J. Rosenbaum, "Biological effects of microwaves at the membrane level: Two possible athermal electrophysiological mechanisms and a proposed experimental test," Math. Biosci., vol. 39, pp. 235-253, 1978.
12. J. Silny, "Demodulation in tissue, the relevant parameters and the implications for limiting exposure," Health Phys., vol. 92, no. 6, pp. 604-608, Jun. 2007.
13. O. Markovitch and N. Agmon, "Structure and energetics of the hydronium hydration shells," J. Phys. Chem. A, vol. 111 no. 12, pp. 2253-2256, 2007.
14. G. S. Edwards, C. C. Davis, J. D. Saffer, and M. L. Swicord, "Resonant microwave absorption of selected DNA molecules," Phys. Rev. Lett. vol. 53, no. 13, pp. 1284-1287, 1984.
15. K. R. Foster, B. R. Epstein, and M. A. Gealt, "'Resonances' in the dielectric absorption of DNA?" Biophys. J., vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 421-425, Sep. 1987.
16. C. Gabriel, E. H. Grant, R. Tata, P. R. Brown, B. Gestblom, and E. Noreland, "Microwave absorption in aqueous solutions of DNA," Nature, vol. 328, no. 6126, pp. 145-146, Jul. 1987.
17. E. W. Prohofsky, "RF absorption involving biological macromolecules," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 441-451, Sep. 2004.
18. S. J. Webb and M. E. Stoneham, "Resonances between 100 and 1000 GHz in active bacterial cells as seen by laser Raman spectroscopy," Phys. Lett. A, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 267-268, 1977.
19. L. Furia and O. P. Gandhi, "Absence of biologically related Raman lines in cultures of Bacillus megaterium," Phys. Lett. A, vol. 102, no. 8, pp. 380-382, 1984.
20. M. S. Cooper and N. M. Amer, "The absence of coherent vibrations in the Raman spectra of living cells," Phys. Lett. A, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 138-142, 1983.
21. S. J. Webb, M. E. Stoneham, and H. Fröhlich, "Evidence for non-thermal excitation of energy levels in active biological systems," Phys. Lett. A, vol 63, no. 3, pp. 407-408, 1977.
22. R. H. Pantell and H. E. Puthoff, Fundamentals of Quantum Electronics New York: Wiley, 1969.
23. T. E. Vaughan and J. C. Weaver, "Molecular change signal-to-noise criteria for interpreting experiments involving exposure of biological systems to weakly interacting electromagnetic fields," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 305-322, 2005.
24. K. H. Illinger, "Spectroscopic Properties of in vivo biological systems: Boson radiative equilibrium with steady-state nonequilibrium molecular systems," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 9-16, 1982.
25. R. K. Adair, "Biophysical limits on athermal effects of RF and microwave radiation," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 39-48, 2003.
26. T. S. Tenforde, "Biological responses to static and time-varying magnetic fields," in Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves in Biological Systems, J. C. Lin, Ed. New York: Plenum, 1989, pp. 83-107.
27. S. Johnsen and K. J. Lohmann, "The physics and neurobiology of magnetoreception," Nat. Rev. Neurosci., vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 703-712, 2005.
28. J. B. Phillips and M. E. Deutschlander, "Magnetoreception in terrestrial vertebrates: Implication for possible mechanisms of EMF interaction with biological systems," in The Melatonin Hypothesis: Breast Cancer and the Use of Electric Power, R. G. Stevens, B. W. Wilson, and L. E. Anderson, Eds. Columbus, OH: Battelle, 1997, pp. 111-172.
29. C. R. Timmel, U. Till, B. Brocklehurst, K. A. McLauchlan, and P. J. Hore, "Effects of weak magnetic fields on free radical recombination reactions," Mol. Phys., vol. 95, no. 1, pp. 71-89, Sep. 1998.
30. H. Mouritsen and T. Ritz, "Magnotoreception and its use in bird navigation," Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 406-414, Aug. 2005.
31. W. Wiltschko and R. Wiltschko, "Magnetic orientation and magnetoreception in 'birds and other animals," J. Comp. Physiol., A Neuroethol. Sens. Neural Behav. Physiol., vol. 191, no. 8, pp. 675-693, Aug. 2005.
32. J. R. Woodward, C. R. Timmel, K. A. McLauchlan, and P. J. Hore, "Radio frequency magnetic field effects on electron-hole recombination," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 87, no. 7, p. 077-602, 2001.
33. C. R. Timmel and K. B. Henbest, "A study of spin chemistry in weak magnetic fields," Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A, Math. Phys. Sci., vol. 362, no. 1825, pp. 2573-2589, 2004.
34. F. Apollonio, M. D'Abramo, M. Liberti, A. Amadei, A. Di Nola, and G. D'Inzeo, "Myoglobin as a case study for molecular simulations in the presence of a microwave, electromagnetic field" in Proc. IEEE MTT-S Int. Microw. Symp. Dig., 2006, pp. 1746-1749.
35. I. T. Suydam, C. D. Snow, V. S. Pande, and S. G. Boxer, "Electric fields at the active site of an enzyme: Direct comparison of experiment with theory," Science, vol. 313, no. 5784, pp. 200-204, 2006. and online supporting material.
36. N. J. English and D. A. Mooney, "Denaturation of hen egg white lysozyme in electromagnetic fields: A molecular dynamics study," J. Chem. Phys., vol. 126, no. 9, pp. 091-105-1-091 105-4, Mar. 2007.
37. [Online]. Available: http://www.who.int/peh-emf/research/database/en/ index.html
38. A. G. Pakhomov and M. R. Murphy, "A comprehensive review of the research on biological effects of pulsed radiofrequency radiation in Russia and the former Soviet Union," in Advances in Electromagnetic Fields in Living Systems, J. C. Lin, Ed. New York: Plenum, 2000, pp. 265-290.
39. IEEE Standard for Safety Levels With Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz, 2005. IEEE Std C95.1-2005.
40. M. J. Schoemaker, A. J. Swerdlow, A. Ahlbom, A. Auvinen, K. G. Blaasaas, E. Cardis, H. C. Christensen, M. Feychting, S. J. Hepworth, C. Johansen, L. Klæboe, S. Lonn, P. A. McKinney, K. Muir, J. Raitanen, T. Salminen, J. Thomsen, and T. Tynes, "Mobile phone use and risk of acoustic neuroma: Results of the interphone case control study in five North European countries," Br. J. Cancer, vol 93, no. 7, pp. 842-848, 2005.
41. A. Lahkola, A. Auvinen, J. Raitanen, M. J. Schoemaker, H. C. Christensen, M. Feychting, C. Johansen, L. Klæboe, S. Lonn, A. J. Swerdlow, T. Tynes, and T. Salminen, "Mobile phone use and risk of glioma in 5 North European countries," Int. J. Cancer, vol. 120, no. 8, pp. 1769-1775, Apr. 2007.
42. Report on INTERPHONE Study, Sep. 25, 2007. [Online]. Available: http://www.iarc.fr/ENG/Units/INTERPHONEresultsupdate.pdf
43. A. Lahkola, K. Tokola, and A. Auvinen, "Meta-analysis of mobile phone use and intracrainal tumors," Scand. J. Work, Environ. Health, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 171-177, 2006.
44. M. Roosli, M. Gisela, C. Kuehni, and A. Spoerr, "Cellular telephone use and time trends in brain tumour mortality in Switzerland from 1969 to 2002," Eur. J. Cancer Prev., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 77-82, Feb. 2007.
45. D. Sundeep, F. C. Lynch, Z. Sibenaller, and T. Ryken, "Trends in brain cancer incidence and survival in the United States: Surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program, 1973 to 2001," Neurosurg. Focus, vol. 20, no. 4, p. E1, 2006.
46. S. Lonn, L. Klaeboe, P. Hall, T. Mathiesen, A. Auvinen, H. Christensen, C. Johansen,T. Salminen, T. Tynes, and M. Feychting, "Incidence trends of adult primary intracerebral tumors in four Nordic countries," Int. J. Cancer, vol. 108, no. 3, pp. 450-455, Jan. 2004.
47. L. O. Hardell, M. Carlberg, F. Soderqvist, K. H. Mild, and L. L. Morgan, "Long-term use of cellular phones and brain tumours - Increased risk associated with use for > 10 years," Occup. Environ. Med., vol. 64, no. 9, pp. 626-632, Sep. 2007.
48. J. A. Elder and C. K. Chou, "Auditory response to pulsed radiofrequency energy," Bioelectromagnetics, pp. S162-S173, 2003. Supplement 6.
49. A. W. Guy, C. K. Chou, J. C. Lin, and D. Christensen, "Microwave-induced acoustic effects in mammalian auditory systems and physical materials," Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 247, no. 1, pp. 194-218, Feb. 1975.
50. M. Koivisto, C. Haarala, C. M. Krause, A. Revonsuo, M. Laine, and H. Hamalainen, "GSM phone signal does not produce subjective symptoms," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 212-215, Apr. 2001.
51. P. Paredi, S. A. Kharitonov, T. Hanazawa, and P. J. Barnes, "Local vasodilator response to mobile phones," Laryngoscope, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 159-162, 2001.
52. G. Oftedal, A. Straume, A. Johnsson, and L. Stovner, "Mobile phone headache: A double blind sham controlled provocation study," Cephalalgia, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 447-455, May 2007.
53. A. W. Preece, G. Iwi, A. Davies-Smith, S. Butler, E. Lim, and A. Varey, "Effect of a 915-MHz simulated mobile phone signal on cognitive function in man," Int. J. Radiat. Biol., vol. 75, no. 4, pp. 447-456, Apr. 1999.
54. M. Koivisto, A. Revonsuo, C. Krause, C. Haarala, L. Sillanmaki, M. Laine, and H. Hamalainen, "Effects of 902 MHz electromagnetic field emitted by cellular telephones on response times in humans," Neuroreport, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 413-415, Feb. 2000.
55. M. Koivisto, C. Krause, A. Revonsuo, M. Laine, and H. Hamalainen, "The effects of electromagnetic field emitted by GSM phones on working memory," Neuroreport, vol. 11, no. 8, pp. 1641-1643, Jun. 2000.
56. C. Haarala, L. Bjornberg, M. Ek, M. Laine, M. Koivisto, and H. Hamalainen, "Effect of a 902 MHz electromagnetic field emitted by mobile phones on human cognitive function: A replication study," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 283-288, May 2003.
57. J. Wilen, A. Johansson, N. Kalezic, E. Lyskov, and M. Sandstrom, "Psychophysiological tests and provocation of subjects with mobile, phone related symptoms," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 204-214, Apr. 2006.
58. A. W. Preece, S. Goodfellow, M. G. Wright, S. R. Butler, E. J. Dunn, Y. Johnson, T. C. Manktelow, and K. Wesnes, "Effect of 902 MHz mobile phone transmission on cognitive function in children," Bioelectromagnetics, pp. S138-S143, 2005. Supplement 7.
59. C. Haarala, M. Bergman, A. Revonsuo, and H. Hämäläinen, "The electromagnetic field emitted by 902 MHz mobile phones shows no effects on children's cognitive function," Bioelectromagnetics, pp. S144-S150, 2005. Supplement 7.
60. R. Huber, V. Treyer, A. A. Borbely, J. Schuderer, J. M. Gottselig, H.-P. Landolt, E. Werth, T. Berthold, N. Kuster, A. Buck, and P. Achermann, "Electromagnetic fields, such as those from mobile phones, alter regional cerebral blood flow and sleep and waking," J. Sleep Res. vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 289-295, Dec. 2002.
61. R. Huber, J. Schuderer, T. Graf, A. A. Borbely, N. Kuster, and P. Achermann, "Radio frequency electromagnetic field exposure in humans: Estimation of SAR distribution in the brain, effects on sleep and heart rate," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 262-276, 2003.
62. D. L. Hamblin and A. W. Wood, "Effects of mobile phone emissions on human brain activity and sleep variables," Int. J. Radiat. Biol., vol. 78, no. 8, pp. 659-669, 2002.
63. A. W. Wood, "Human volunteer studies of physiological and psychological responses to mobile phone emissions: How consistent are they? Are children different?" presented at the FGF Workshop, Stuttgart, Germany, Nov. 2006. unpublished.
64. D. L. Hamblin, V Anderson, R. L. Mcintosh, R. J. McKenzie, and A. W. Wood, "EEG electrode caps can reduce SAR induced in the head by GSM 900 mobile phones," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 914-920, May 2007.
65. C. H. Sutton and F. B. Carrol, "Effects of microwave-induced hyperthermia on the blood-brain barrier of the rat," Radio Sci., vol. 14, no. 65, pp. 329-334, 1979.
66. J. H. Merritt, A. F. Chamness, and S. J. Allen, "Studies on blood-brain barrier permeability after microwave radiation," Radiat. Environ. Biophys., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 367-377, Dec. 1978.
67. K. Fritz, C. Sommer, B. Schmitz, G. Mies, K. A. Hossmann, M. Kiessling, and C. Wiessner, "Effect of global system for mobile communication (GSM) microwave exposure on blood-brain barrier permeability in rat," Acta Neuropathol., vol. 94, no. 5, pp. 465-470, Nov. 1997.
68. Y. Ohmoto, H. Fujisawa, T. Ishikawam, H. Koizumi, T. Matsuda, and H. Ito, "Sequential changes in cerebral blood flow, early neuropathological consequences and blood-brain barrier disruption following radiofrequency-induced localized hyperthermia," Int. J. Hypertherm., vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 321-334, May 1996.
69. C.-K. Chou, A. W. Guy, L. L. Kunz, R. B. Johnson, J. J. Crowley, and J. K. Krupp, "Long-term low-level microwave irradiation of rats," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 469-496, 1992.
70. M. H. Repacholi, A. Basten, V. Gebsk, D. Noonan, J. Finnie and A. W. Harris, "Lymphomas in transgenic mice exposed to pulsed 900 MHz electromagnetic fields," Radiat. Res., vol. 147, pp. 631-640, 1997.
71. T. D. Utteridge, V. Gebski, J. W. Finnie, B. Vernon-Roberts, and T. R. Kuchel, "Long-term exposure of eμ-pim1 transgenic mice to 898.4 MHz microwaves does not increase lymphoma incidence," Radiat. Res., vol. 158, no. 3, pp. 357-364, Sep. 2002.
72. G. Oberto, K. Rolfo, P. Yu, M. Carbonatto, S. Peano, N. Kuster, S. Eber, and S. Tofani, "Carcinogenicity study of 217 Hz pulsed 900 MHz electromagnetic fields in Pim-1 transgenic mice," Radiat. Res., vol. 168, no. 3, pp. 316-326, Sep. 2007.
73. L. J. Anghileri, E. Mayayo, J. L. Domingo, and R. Thouvenot, "Radiofrequency-induced carcinogenesis: Cellular calcium homeostasis changes as a triggering factor," Int. J. Radiat. Biol., vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 205-209, 2005.
74. C. Daniells, I. Duce, D. Thomas, P. Sewell, J. Tattersall, and D. de Pomerai, "Transgenic nematodes as biomonitors of microwave-induced stress," Mutat. Res., vol. 399, no. 1, pp. 55-64, Mar. 1998.
75. D. de Pomerai, C. Daniells, H. David, J. Allan, I. Duce, M. Mutwakil, D. Thomas, P. Sewell, J. Tattersall, D. Jones, and P. Candido, "Non-thermal heat shock response to microwaves," Nature, vol. 405, no. 6785, pp. 417-418, May 2000.
76. D. de Pomerai, C. Daniells, H. David, J. Allan, I. Duce, M. Mutwakil, D. Thomas, P. Sewell, J. Tattersall, D. Jones, and P. Candido, "Microwave radiation induces a heat-shock response and enhances growth in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans," IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 2076-2081, Nov. 2000.
77. D. de Pomerai, A. Dawe, L. Djerbib, J. Allan, G. Brunt, and C. Daniells, "Growth and maturation of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans following exposure to weak microwave fields," Enzyme Microb. Technol., vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 73-79, Jan. 2002.
78. D. I. de Pomerai, B. Smith, A. Dawe, K. North, B. Smith, D. B. Archer, I. R. Duce, D. Jones, and E. P. M. Candido, "Microwave radiation can alter protein conformation without bulk heating," FEBS Lett., vol. 543, no. 1-3, pp. 93-97, 2003.
79. A. S. Dawe, B. Smith, W. P. Thomas, S. Greedy, N. Vasic, A. Gregory, B. Loader, and D. I. de Pomerai, "A small temperature rise may contribute towards the apparent induction by microwaves of heat-shock gene expression in the Nematode Caenorhabditis Elegans," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 88-97, Feb. 2006.
80. L. Penafiel, T. Litovitz, D. Krause, A. Desta, and J. M. Mullins, "Role, of modulation on the effects of microwaves on ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 132-141, 1997.
81. A. B. Desta, R. D. Owen, and L. W. Cress, "Non-thermal exposure to radiofrequency energy from digital wireless phones does not affect ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells," Radiat. Res., vol. 160, no. 4, pp. 488-491, 2003.
82. E. Diem, C. Schwarz, F. Adikofer, O. Jahn, and H. Rudiger, "Nonthermal DNA breakage by mobile-phone radiation (1800 MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulose cells in vitro," Mutat. Res., vol. 583, pp. 178-183, 2005.
83. G. Speit, R Schutz, and H. Hoffmann, "Genotoxic effects of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RE-EMF) in cultured mammalian cells are not independently reproducible," Mutat. Res., vol. 626, no. 1/2, pp. 42-47, 2007.
84. S. Ivancsits, A. Pilger, E. Diem, O. Jahn, and H. W. Rüdiger, "Cell type-specific genotoxic effects of intermittent extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields," Mutat. Res., vol. 583, no. 2, pp. 184-188, Jun. 2005.
85. Vijayalaxmi, "Comments on: 'DNA strand breaks' by Diem. Mutat. Res. 583 (2005) 178-183] and Ivancsits [Mutat. Res. 583 (2005) 184-188]," Mutat. Res., vol. 603, no. 1, pp. 104-106, Jan. 2006.
86. M. L. Meltz, "Radiofrequency exposure and mammalian cell toxicity, genotoxicity, and transformation," Bioelectromagnetics, pp. S196-S213, 2003. (Suppl. 6).
87. Vijayalaxmi and G. Obe, "Controversial cytogenetic observations in mammalian somatic cells exposed to radiofrequency radiation," Radiat. Res., vol. 162, no. 5, pp. 481-496, Nov. 2004.
88. L. Verschaeve, "Genetic effects of radiofrequency radiation (RFR) " Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., vol. 207, no. 2, pp. S336-S341, Sep. 2005. (Suppl.).
89. R. R. Tice, G. G. Hook, M. Donner, D. I. McRee, and A. W. Guy, "Genotoxicity of radiofrequency signals. I. Investigation of DNA damage and micronuclei induction in cultured human blood cells," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 113-126, 2002.
90. Vijayalaxmi, W. F. Pickard, K. S. Bisht, B. Z. Leal, M. L. Meltz, J. L. Roti Roti W. L. Staube, and E. G. Moros, "Cytogenetic studies in human blood lymphocytes exposed in vitro to radiofrequency radiation at a cellular telephone frequency (835.62 MHz, FDMA)," Radiat. Res., vol. 155, no. 1, pp. 113-121, Jan. 2001.
91. Vijayalaxmi, K. S. Bisht, W. F. Pickard, M. L. Meltz, J. L. Roti Roti, and E. G. Moros, "Chromosomal damage and micronucleus formation in human blood lymphocytes exposed in vitro to radiofrequency radiation at a cellular telephone frequency (847.74 MHz, CDMA)," Radiat. Res., vol. 156, no. 4, pp. 430-433, Oct. 2001.
92. J. P. McNamee, R. V. Bellier, G. B. Gajda, S. M. Miller, E. P. Lemay, B. F. Lavalleé, L. Marro, and A. Thansandote, "DNA damage and micronucleus induction in human leukocytes after acute in vitro exposure to a 1.9 GHz continuous-wave radiofrequency field," Radiat. Res., vol. 158, no. 4, pp. 523-533, 2002.
93. J. P. McNamee, P. V. Bellier, G. B. Gajda, B. F. Lavalleé, E. P. Lema, L. Marro, and A. Thansandote, "DNA damage in human leukocytes after acute in vitro exposure to a 1.9 GHz pulse-modulated radiofrequency field," Radiat. Res., vol. 158, no.4, pp. 534-537, 2002.
94. J. P. McNamee, P. V. Bellier, G. B. Gajda, B. F. Lavalleé, E. P. Lema, L. Marro, E. P. Lema, and A. Thansandote, "No evidence for genotoxic effects from 24 h exposure of human leukocytes to 1.9 GHz radiofrequency fields," Radiat. Res., vol. 159, no. 5, pp. 693-697, 2003.
95. M. R. Scarfi, A. M. Fresegna, P. Villani, R. Pinto, C. Marino, M. Sarti, P. Altavista, A. Sannino, and G. A. Lovisolo, "Exposure to radiofrequency radiation (900 MHz, GSM signal) does not affect micronucleus frequency and cell proliferation in human peripheral blood lymphocytes: An interlaboratory study," Radiat. Res., vol. 165, no. 6, pp. 655-663, 2006.
96. B.-D. Gorlitz, M. Muler, S. Ebert, H. Hecker, N. Kuste, and C. Dasenbrock, "Effects of 1-week and 6-week exposure to GSM/DCS radiofrequency radiation on micronucleus formation in B6C3F1 mice," Radiat Res., vol. 164, no. 4, pp. 431-439, 2005.
97. J. A. Spadaro, "Mechanical and electrical interactions in bone remodeling." Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 193-202, 1997.
98. A. A. Pilla, "Mechanisms and therapeutic applications of time-varying and static magnetic fields," in Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields: Biological and Medical Aspects of Electromagnetic Fields, 3rd ed., F. S. Barnes and B. Greenebaum, Eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2007. 351.
99. L. F. Jaffe and R. Nuccitelli, "An ultrasensitive vibrating probe for measuring steady extracellular currents," J. Cell Biol., vol. 63 no. 2, pp. 614-628, Nov. 1974.
100. J. L. Walker, R. Kryscio, J. Smith, A. Pilla, and B. F. Sisken, "Electromagnetic field treatment of nerve crush injury in a rat model: Effect of signal configuration on functional recovery," Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 256-263, 2007.
101. B. Greenebaum and B. F. Sisken, "Does direction of induced electric field or current provide a test of mechanism involved in nerve regeneration?" Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 488-492, 2007.
102. T. Tryfona and M. T. Bustard, "Enhancement of biomolecule transport by electroporation: A review of theory and practical application to transformation of Corynebacterium glutamicum," Biotechnol. Bioeng. vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 413-423, 2006.
103. G. R. Bright, N.-T. Kuo, D. Chow, S. Burden, C. Dowe, and R. J. Przybylski, "Delivery of macromolecules into adherent cells via electroporation for use in fluorescence spectroscopic imaging and metabolic studies," Cytometry, vol. 24, no. 3. pp. 226-233, 1996.
104. T. R. Gowrisharikar, A. T. Esser, Z. Vasilkoski, K. C. Smith, and J. C. Weaver, "Microdosimetry for conventional and supra electroporation in cells with organelles," Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., vol. 341, no. 4, pp. 1266-1276, 2006.
105. D. A. Stewart, T. R. Gowrishankar, and J. C. Weaver, "Transport lattice approach to describing cell electroporation: Use of a local asymptotic model," IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 1696-1708, Aug. 2004.
106. Y. D. Gong, M. Y. W. Chia, and B. Luo, "Terahertz Spectroscopy technology trend using 1550-nm ultrafast fiber laser," Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett., vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 439-443, 2007.