Prenatal restraint stress differentially modifies basal and stimulated dopamine and noradrenaline release in the nucleus accumbens shell: An 'in vivo' microdialysis study in adolescent and young adult rats

European Journal of Neuroscience

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 744-758

  Silvagni, Alessandra ^a   Barros, Virginia G ^b   Mura, Cristina ^a   Antonelli, Marta C ^b   Carboni, Ezio ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAGLIARI   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSIDAD DE BUENOS AIRES   (Argentina)

^c Istituto Nazionale di Neuroscienze   (Italy)

Author keywords

ADHD; Amphetamine; Depression; Nicotine; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; DOPAMINE; NICOTINE; NORADRENALIN;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; ANIMAL TISSUE; ARTICLE; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DISEASE COURSE; DOPAMINE RELEASE; DRUG DEPENDENCE; FEMALE; IMMOBILIZATION STRESS; IN VIVO STUDY; MALE; MENTAL DISEASE; MICRODIALYSIS; NONHUMAN; NORADRENALIN RELEASE; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; PERINATAL PERIOD; PRENATAL PERIOD; PRENATAL STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAT; STIMULATION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AMPHETAMINE; ANIMALS; CHILD; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE UPTAKE INHIBITORS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MICRODIALYSIS; NICOTINE; NICOTINIC AGONISTS; NOREPINEPHRINE; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; RANDOM ALLOCATION; RATS; RATS, WISTAR; RESTRAINT, PHYSICAL; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 49249122708     PISSN: 0953816X     EISSN: 14609568     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06364.x     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Adriani, W. Laviola, G. (2004) Windows of vulnerability to psychopathology and therapeutic strategy in the adolescent rodent model. Behav. Pharmacol., 15, 341 352.
2. Alonso, S.J., Navarro, E. Rodriguez, M. (1994) Permanent dopaminergic alterations in the n. accumbens after prenatal stress. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 49, 353 358.
3. Arishima, K., Nakama, S., Morikawa, Y., Hashimoto, Y. Eguchi, Y. (1977) Maternal-foetal interrelations of plasma corticosterone concentrations at the end of gestation in the rat. J. Endocrinol., 72, 239 240.
4. Arnsten, A.F. (2006) Stimulants: therapeutic actions in ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 2376 2383.
5. Auclair, A., Cotecchia, S., Glowinski, J. Tassin, J.P. (2002) D-amphetamine fails to increase extracellular dopamine levels in mice lacking alpha 1b-adrenergic receptors: relationship between functional and nonfunctional dopamine release. J. Neurosci., 22, 9150 9154.
6. Badiani, A., Cabib, S. Puglisi-Allegra, S. (1992) Chronic stress induces strain-dependent sensitization to the behavioral effects of amphetamine in the mouse. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 43, 53 60.
7. Barbazanges, A., Piazza, P.V., Le Moal, M. Maccari, S. (1996) Maternal glucocorticoid secretion mediates long-term effects of prenatal stress. J. Neurosci., 16, 3943 3949.
8. Barron, S., White, A., Swartzwelder, H.S., Bell, R.L., Rodd, Z.A., Slawecki, C.J., Ehlers, C.L., Levin, E.D., Rezvani, A.H. Spear, L.P. (2005) Adolescent vulnerabilities to chronic alcohol or nicotine exposure: findings from rodent models. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res., 29, 1720 1725.
9. Barros, V.G., Berger, M.A., Martijena, I.D., Sarchi, M.I., Perez, A.A., Molina, V.A., Tarazi, F.I. Antonelli, M.C. (2004) Early adoption modifies the effects of prenatal stress on dopamine and glutamate receptors in adult rat brain. J. Neurosci. Res., 76, 488 496.
10. Barros, V.G., Rodriguez, P., Martijena, I.D., Perez, A., Molina, V.A. Antonelli, M.C. (2006) Prenatal stress and early adoption effects on benzodiazepine receptors and anxiogenic behavior in the adult rat brain. Synapse, 60, 609 618.
11. Berger, M.A., Barros, V.G., Sarchi, M.I., Tarazi, F.I. Antonelli, M.C. (2002) Long-term effects of prenatal stress on dopamine and glutamate receptors in adult rat brain. Neurochem. Res., 27, 1525 1533.
12. Berridge, C.W., Stratford, T.L., Foote, S.L. Kelley, A.E. (1997) Distribution of dopamine beta-hydroxylase-like immunoreactive fibers within the shell subregion of the nucleus accumbens. Synapse, 27, 230 241.
13. Brown, A.S., van Os, J., Driessens, C., Hoek, H.W. Susser, E.S. (2000) Further evidence of relation between prenatal famine and major affective disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 157, 190 195.
14. Cador, M., Cole, B.J., Koob, G.F., Stinus, L. Le Moal, M. (1993) Central administration of corticotropin releasing factor induces long-term sensitization to D-amphetamine. Brain Res., 606, 181 186.
15. Carboni, E. Silvagni, A. (2004) Experimental investigations on dopamine transmission can provide clues on the mechanism of the therapeutic effect of amphetamine and methylphenidate in ADHD. Neural Plast., 11, 77 95.
16. Carboni, E., Imperato, A., Perezzani, L. Di Chiara, G. (1989) Amphetamine, cocaine, phencyclidine and nomifensine increase extracellular dopamine concentrations preferentially in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats. Neuroscience, 28, 653 661.
17. Carboni, E., Silvagni, A., Rolando, M.P.T. Di Chiara, G. (2000a) Stimulation of in vivo dopamine transmission in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis by reinforcing drugs. J. Neurosci., 20, 102.
18. Carboni, E., Bortone, L., Giua, C. Di Chiara, G. (2000b) Dissociation of physical abstinence signs from changes in extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and in the prefrontal cortex of nicotine dependent rats. Drug Alcohol Depend., 58, 93 102.
19. Carboni, E., Spielewoy, C., Vacca, C., Nosten-Bertrand, M., Giros, B. Di Chiara, G. (2001) Cocaine and amphetamine increase extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens of mice lacking the dopamine transporter gene. J. Neurosci., 21, 141.
20. Carboni, E., Silvagni, A., Valentini, V. Di Chiara, G. (2003) Effect of amphetamine, methylphenidate and depolarization by high potassium on extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens shell of SHR rats. An in vivo microdialysis study. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 27, 653 659.
21. Chambers, R.A., Krystal, J.H. Self, D.W. (2001) A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry, 50, 71 83.
22. Chambers, R.A., Taylor, J.R. Potenza, M.N. (2003) Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. Am. J. Psychiatry, 160, 1041 1052.
23. Clements, A.D. (1992) The incidence of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in children whose mothers experienced extreme psychological stress. Ga. Educ. Res., 91, 1 14.
24. Darracq, L., Blanc, G., Glowinski, J. Tassin, J.P. (1998) Importance of the noradrenaline-dopamine coupling in the locomotor activating effects of D-amphetamine. J. Neurosci., 18, 2729 2739.
25. Delfs, J.M., Zhu, Y., Druhan, J.P. Aston-Jones, G.S. (1998) Origin of noradrenergic afferents to the shell sub-region of the nucleus accumbens: anterograde and retrograde tract-tracing studies in the rat. Brain Res., 806, 127 140.
26. Deminière, J.M., Piazza, P.V., Guegan, G., Abrous, N., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M. Simon, H. (1992) Increased locomotor response to novelty and propensity to intravenous amphetamine self-administration in adult offspring of stressed mothers. Brain Res., 586, 135 139.
27. Deroche, V., Marinelli, M., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M., Simon, H. Piazza, P.V. (1995) Stress-induced sensitization and glucocorticoids. I. Sensitization of dopamine-dependent locomotor effects of amphetamine and morphine depends on stress-induced corticosterone secretion. J. Neurosci., 15, 7181 7188.
28. Deutch, A.Y., Goldstein, M., Baldino, F. Jr Roth, R.H. (1988) Telencephalic projections of the A8 dopamine cell group. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 537, 27 50.
29. Di Chiara, G. (2000) Role of dopamine in the behavioural actions of nicotine related to addiction. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 393, 295 314.
30. Di Chiara, G. Bassareo, V. (2007) Reward system and addiction: what dopamine does and doesn't do. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol., 7, 69 76.
31. Di Chiara, G., Loddo, P. Tanda, G. (1999) Reciprocal changes in prefrontal and limbic dopamine responsiveness to aversive and rewarding stimuli after chronic mild stress: implications for the psychobiology of depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 46, 1624 1633.
32. Di Chiara, G., Bassareo, V., Fenu, S., De Luca, M.A., Spina, L., Cadoni, C., Acquas, E., Carboni, E., Valentini, V. Lecca, D. (2004) Dopamine and drug addiction: the nucleus accumbens shell connection. Neuropharmacology, 47, 227 241.
33. Diaz, R., Ogren, S.O., Blum, M. Fuxe, K. (1995) Prenatal corticosterone increases spontaneous and d-amphetamine induced locomotor activity and brain dopamine metabolism in prepubertal male and female rats. Neuroscience, 66, 467 473.
34. Diego, M.A., Jones, N.A., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., Schanberg, S., Kuhn, C. Gonzalez-Garcia, A. (2006) Maternal psychological distress, prenatal cortisol, and fetal weight. Psychosom. Med., 68, 747 753.
35. Drago, F., Di Leo, F. Giardina, L. (1999) Prenatal stress induces body weight deficit and behavioural alterations in rats: the effect of diazepam. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 9, 239 245.
36. Ellenbroek, B.A. (2004) Pre-attentive processing and schizophrenia: animal studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 174, 65 74.
37. Fride, E. Weinstock, M. (1988) Prenatal stress increases anxiety related behavior and alters cerebral lateralization of dopamine activity. Life Sci., 42, 1059 1065.
38. Grace, A.A., Floresco, S.B., Goto, Y. Lodge, D.J. (2007) Regulation of firing of dopaminergic neurons and control of goal-directed behaviors. Trends Neurosci., 30, 220 227.
39. Grenhoff, J. Svensson, T.H. (1993) Prazosin modulates the firing pattern of dopamine neurons in rat ventral tegmental area. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 233, 79 84.
40. Grizenko, N., Shayan, Y.R., Polotskaia, A., Ter-Stepanian, M. Joober, R. (2008) Relation of maternal stress during pregnancy to symptom severity and response to treatment in children with ADHD. J. Psychiatry Neurosci., 33, 10 16.
41. Hajnal, A. Norgren, R. (2004) Sucrose sham feeding decreases accumbens norepinephrine in the rat. Physiol. Behav., 82, 43 47.
42. Henry, C., Guegant, G., Cador, M., Arnauld, E., Arsaut, J., Le Moal, M. Demotes-Mainard, J. (1995) Prenatal stress in rats facilitates amphetamine-induced sensitization and induces long-lasting changes in dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Brain Res., 685, 179 186.
43. Huizink, A.C., Mulder, E.J. Buitelaar, J.K. (2004) Prenatal stress and risk for psychopathology: specific effects or induction of general susceptibility? Psychol. Bull., 130, 115 142.
44. Kalivas, P.W. (1993) Neurotransmitter regulation of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area. Brain Res. Rev., 18, 75 113.
45. Kamien, J.B. Woolverton, W.L. (1989) A pharmacological analysis of the discriminative stimulus properties of d-amphetamine in rhesus monkeys. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 248, 938 946.
46. King, S., Laplante, D. Joober, R. (2005) Understanding putative risk factors for schizophrenia: retrospective and prospective studies. J. Psychiatry Neurosci., 30, 342 348.
47. Kippin, T.E., Szumlinski, K.K., Kapasova, Z., Rezner, B. See, R.E. (2008) Prenatal stress enhances responsiveness to cocaine. Neuropsychopharmacology., 33, 769 782.
48. Kleven, M.S. Koek, W. (1998) Discriminative stimulus properties of cocaine: enhancement by monoamine reuptake blockers. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 284, 1015 1025.
49. Koehl, M., Bjijou, Y., Le Moal, M. Cador, M. (2000) Nicotine-induced locomotor activity is increased by preexposure of rats to prenatal stress. Brain Res., 882, 196 200.
50. Koenig, J.I., Elmer, G.I., Shepard, P.D., Lee, P.R., Mayo, C., Joy, B., Hercher, E. Brady, D.L. (2005) Prenatal exposure to a repeated variable stress paradigm elicits behavioral and neuroendocrinological changes in the adult offspring: potential relevance to schizophrenia. Behav. Brain Res., 156, 251 261.
51. Kofman, O. (2002) The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 26, 457 470.
52. Kumari, V. Postma, P. (2005) Nicotine use in schizophrenia: the self medication hypotheses. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 29, 1021 1034.
53. Laruelle, M. Abi-Dargham, A. (1999) Dopamine as the wind of the psychotic fire: new evidence from brain imaging studies. J. Psychopharmacol., 13, 358 371.
54. Laviola, G., Rea, M., Morley-Fletcher, S., Di Carlo, S., Bacosi, A., De Simone, R., Bertini, M. Pacifici, R. (2004) Beneficial effects of enriched environment on adolescent rats from stressed pregnancies. Eur. J. Neurosci., 20, 1655 1664.
55. Le Pen, G., Gourevitch, R., Hazane, F., Hoareau, C., Jay, T.M. Krebs, M.O. (2006) Peri-pubertal maturation after developmental disturbance: a model for psychosis onset in the rat. Neuroscience, 143, 395 405.
56. Leckman, J.F., Dolnansky, E.S., Hardin, M.T., Clubb, M., Walkup, J.T., Stevenson, J. Pauls, D.L. (1990) Perinatal factors in the expression of Tourette's syndrome: an exploratory study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 29, 220 226.
57. Lehmann, J., Pryce, C.R. Feldon, J. (2000) Lack of effect of an early stressful life event on sensorimotor gating in adult rats. Schizophr. Res., 41, 365 371.
58. Levin, E.D., McClernon, F.J. Rezvani, A.H. (2006) Nicotinic effects on cognitive function: behavioral characterization, pharmacological specification, and anatomic localization. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 184, 523 539.
59. Li, S.X., Perry, K.W. Wong, D.T. (2002) Influence of fluoxetine on the ability of bupropion to modulate extracellular dopamine and norepinephrine concentrations in three mesocorticolimbic areas of rats. Neuropharmacology, 42, 181 190.
60. Linnér, L., Endersz, H., Ohman, D., Bengtsson, F., Schalling, M. Svensson, T.H. (2001) Reboxetine modulates the firing pattern of dopamine cells in the ventral tegmental area and selectively increases dopamine availability in the prefrontal cortex. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 297, 540 546.
61. Linnet, K.M., Dalsgaard, S., Obel, C., Wisborg, K., Henriksen, T.B., Rodriguez, A., Kotimaa, A., Moilanen, I., Thomsen, P.H., Olsen, J. Jarvelin, M.R. (2003) Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviors: review of the current evidence. Am. J. Psychiatry, 160, 1028 1040.
62. Maccari, S., Piazza, P.V., Kabbaj, M., Barbazanges, A., Simon, H. Le Moal, M. (1995) Adoption reverses the long-term impairment in glucocorticoid feedback induced by prenatal stress. J. Neurosci., 15, 110 116.
63. Mameli-Engvall, M., Evrard, A., Pons, S., Maskos, U., Svensson, T.H., Changeux, J.P. Faure, P. (2006) Hierarchical control of dopamine neuron-firing patterns by nicotinic receptors. Neuron, 50, 911 921.
64. Marinelli, M. Piazza, P.V. (2002) Interaction between glucocorticoid hormones, stress and psychostimulant drugs. Eur. J. Neurosci., 16, 387 394.
65. Matta, S.G., Fu, Y., Valentine, J.D. Sharp, B.M. (1998) Response of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis to nicotine. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 103 113.
66. Matthews, S.G. (2000) Antenatal glucocorticoids and programming of the developing CNS. Pediatr. Res., 47, 291 300.
67. McArthur, S., McHale, E., Dalley, J.W., Buckingham, J.C. Gillies, G.E. (2005) Altered mesencephalic dopaminergic populations in adulthood as a consequence of brief perinatal glucocorticoid exposure. J. Neuroendocrinol., 17, 475 482.
68. McClure, W.O., Ishtoyan, A. Lyon, M. (2004) Very mild stress of pregnant rats reduces volume and cell number in nucleus accumbens of adult offspring: some parallels to schizophrenia. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res., 149, 21 28.
69. McIntosh, D.E., Mulkins, R.S. Dean, R.S. (1995) Utilization of maternal perinatal risk indicators in the differential diagnosis of ADHD and UADD children. Int. J. Neurosci., 81, 35 46.
70. McKittrick, C.R. Abercrombie, E.D. (2007) Catecholamine mapping within nucleus accumbens: differences in basal and amphetamine-stimulated efflux of norepinephrine and dopamine in shell and core. J. Neurochem., 100, 1247 1256.
71. Morley-Fletcher, S., Darnaudery, M., Koehl, M., Casolini, P., Van Reeth, O. Maccari, S. (2003) Prenatal stress in rats predicts immobility behavior in the forced swim test. Effects of a chronic treatment with tianeptine. Brain Res., 989, 246 251.
72. Morley-Fletcher, S., Darnaudery, M., Mocaer, E., Froger, N., Lanfumey, L., Laviola, G., Casolini, P., Zuena, A.R., Marzano, L., Hamon, M. Maccari, S. (2004) Chronic treatment with imipramine reverses immobility behaviour, hippocampal corticosteroid receptors and cortical 5-HT(1A) receptor mRNA in prenatally stressed rats. Neuropharmacology, 47, 841 847.
73. Moser, P.C., Hitchcock, J.M., Lister, S. Moran, P.M. (2000) The pharmacology of latent inhibition as an animal model of schizophrenia. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev., 33, 275 307.
74. Muneoka, K., Mikuni, M., Ogawa, T., Kitera, K., Kamei, K., Takigawa, M. Takahashi, K. (1997) Prenatal dexamethasone exposure alters brain monoamine metabolism and adrenocortical response in rat offspring. Am. J. Physiol., 273, R1669 R1675.
75. Murmu, M.S., Salomon, S., Biala, Y., Weinstock, M., Braun, K. Bock, J. (2006) Changes of spine density and dendritic complexity in the prefrontal cortex in offspring of mothers exposed to stress during pregnancy. Eur. J. Neurosci., 24, 1477 1487.
76. Nashmi, R., Xiao, C., Deshpande, P., McKinney, S., Grady, S.R., Whiteaker, P., Huang, Q., McClure-Begley, T., Lindstrom, J.M., Labarca, C., Collins, A.C., Marks, M.J. Lester, H.A. (2007) Chronic nicotine cell specifically upregulates functional alpha 4* nicotinic receptors: basis for both tolerance in midbrain and enhanced long-term potentiation in perforant path. J. Neurosci., 27, 8202 8218.
77. Nomikos, G.G., Schilstrom, B., Hildebrand, B.E., Panagis, G., Grenhoff, J. Svensson, T.H. (2000) Role of alpha7 nicotinic receptors in nicotine dependence and implications for psychiatric illness. Behav. Brain Res., 113, 97 103.
78. O'Connor, T.G., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Heron, J., Golding, J., Adams, D. Glover, V. (2005) Prenatal anxiety predicts individual differences in cortisol in pre-adolescent children. Biol. Psychiatry, 58, 211 217.
79. Paterson, N.E. Markou, A. (2007) Animal models and treatments for addiction and depression co-morbidity. Neurotox. Res., 11, 1 32.
80. Patin, V., Lordi, B., Vincent, A. Caston, J. (2005) Effects of prenatal stress on anxiety and social interactions in adult rats. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res., 160, 265 274.
81. Paxinos, G. Watson, C. (2007) The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates, 6th Edn. Academic Press/;Elevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
82. Piazza, P.V., Rougé-Pont, F., Deroche, V., Maccari, S., Simon, H. Le Moal, M. (1996) Glucocorticoids have state-dependent stimulant effects on the mesencephalic dopaminergic transmission. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 8716 8720.
83. Pifl, C., Agneter, E., Drobny, H., Sitte, H.H. Singer, E.A. (1999) Amphetamine reverses or blocks the operation of the human noradrenaline transporter depending on its concentration: superfusion studies on transfected cells. Neuropharmacology, 38, 157 165.
84. Prince, J.B. (2006) Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: update on new stimulant preparations, atomoxetine, and novel treatments. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 15, 13 50.
85. Reith, M.E., Li, M.Y. Yan, Q.S. (1997) Extracellular dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats during intracerebral dialysis following systemic administration of cocaine and other uptake blockers. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 134, 309 317.
86. Rodriguez, A. Bohlin, G. (2005) Are maternal smoking and stress during pregnancy related to ADHD symptoms in children? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 46, 246 254.
87. Rougé-Pont, F., Marinelli, M., Le Moal, M., Simon, H. Piazza, P.V. (1995) Stress-induced sensitization and glucocorticoids. II. Sensitization of the increase in extracellular dopamine induced by cocaine depends on stress-induced corticosterone secretion. J. Neurosci., 15, 7189 7195.
88. Sagvolden, T. (2000) Behavioral validation of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as an animal model of attention-deficit/;hyperactivity disorder (AD/;HD). Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 24, 31 39.
89. Seeman, P., Schwarz, J., Chen, J.F., Szechtman, H., Perreault, M., McKnight, G.S., Roder, J.C., Quirion, R., Boksa, P., Srivastava, L.K., Yanai, K., Weinshenker, D. Sumiyoshi, T. (2006) Psychosis pathways converge via D2high dopamine receptors. Synapse, 60, 319 346.
90. Selten, J.P., van der Graaf, Y., van Duursen, R., Gispen-de Wied, C.C. Kahn, R.S. (1999) Psychotic illness after prenatal exposure to the 1953 Dutch Flood Disaster. Schizophr. Res., 35, 243 245.
91. Selten, J.P., Cantor-Graae, E., Nahon, D., Levav, I., Aleman, A. Kahn, R.S. (2003) No relationship between risk of schizophrenia and prenatal exposure to stress during the Six-Day War or Yom Kippur War in Israel. Schizophr. Res., 63, 131 135.
92. Shi, W.X., Pun, C.L., Zhang, X.X., Jones, M.D. Bunney, B.S. (2000) Dual effects of D-amphetamine on dopamine neurons mediated by dopamine and nondopamine receptors. J. Neurosci., 20, 3504 3511.
93. Smith, J.W., Seckl, J.R., Evans, A.T., Costall, B. Smythe, J.W. (2004) Gestational stress induces post-partum depression-like behaviour and alters maternal care in rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 227 244.
94. Son, G.H., Chung, S., Geum, D., Kang, S.S., Choi, W.S., Kim, K. Choise, S. (2007) Hyperactivity and alteration of the midbrain dopaminergic system in maternally stressed male mice offspring. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 352, 823 829.
95. Spealman, R.D. (1995) Noradrenergic involvement in the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine in squirrel monkeys. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 275, 53 62.
96. Spear, L.P. (2000) The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neurosi. Biobehav. Rev., 24, 417 463.
97. Sulzer, D., Sonders, M.S., Poulsen, N.W. Galli, A. (2005) Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog. Neurobiol., 75, 406 433.
98. Takahashi, L.K., Turner, J.G. Kalin, N.H. (1992) Prenatal stress alters brain catecholaminergic activity and potentiates stress-induced behavior in adult rats. Brain Res., 574, 131 137.
99. Thompson, J.L., Pogue-Geile, M.F. Grace, A.A. (2004) Developmental pathology, dopamine, and stress: a model for the age of onset of schizophrenia symptoms. Schizophr. Bull., 30, 875 900.
100. Totterdell, S. (2006) The anatomy of co-morbid neuropsychiatric disorders based on cortico-limbic synaptic interactions. Neurotox. Res., 10, 65 85.
101. Vallée, M., Mayo, W., Dellu, F., Le Moal, M., Simon, H. Maccari, S. (1997) Prenatal stress induces high anxiety and postnatal handling induces low anxiety in adult offspring: correlation with stress-induced corticosterone secretion. J. Neurosci., 17, 2626 2636.
102. Ventura, R., Morrone, C. Puglisi-Allegra, S. (2007) Prefrontal/;accumbal catecholamine system determines motivational salience attribution to both reward- and aversion-related stimuli. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 5181 5186.
103. Wang, G.J., Volkow, N.D., Chang, L., Miller, E., Sedler, M., Hitzemann, R., Zhu, W., Logan, J., Ma, Y. Fowler, J.S. (2004) Partial recovery of brain metabolism in methamphetamine abusers after protracted abstinence. Am. J. Psychiatry, 161, 242 248.
104. Ward, I.L. Weisz, J. (1984) Differential effects of maternal stress on circulating levels of corticosterone, progesterone, and testosterone in male and female rat fetuses and their mothers. Endocrinology, 114, 1635 1644.
105. Watson, J.B., Mednick, S.A., Huttunen, M. Wang, X. (1999) Prenatal teratogens and the development of adult mental illness. Dev. Psychopathol., 11, 457 466.
106. Wee, S., Wang, Z., He, R., Zhou, J., Kozikowski, A.P. Woolverton, W.L. (2006) Role of the increased noradrenergic neurotransmission in drug self-administration. Drug Alcohol Depend., 82, 151 157.
107. Weiner, S.K. (2003) First person account: living with the delusions and effects of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull., 29, 877 879.
108. Weinstock, M. (2001) Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Prog. Neurobiol., 65, 427 451.
109. Weinstock, M. (2005) The potential influence of maternal stress hormones on development and mental health of the offspring. Brain Behav. Immun., 19, 296 308.
110. West, A.R., Floresco, S.B., Charara, A., Rosenkranz, J.A. Grace, A.A. (2003) Electrophysiological interactions between striatal glutamatergic and dopaminergic systems. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1003, 53 74.
111. Wilens, T.E. (2006) Mechanism of action of agents used in attention-deficit/;hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 67, 32 38.
112. Wilens, T.E. Decker, M.W. (2007) Neuronal nicotinic receptor agonists for the treatment of attention-deficit/;hyperactivity disorder: focus on cognition. Biochem. Pharmacol., 74, 1212 1223.
113. Yadid, G., Overstreet, D.H. Zangen, A. (2001) Limbic dopaminergic adaptation to a stressful stimulus in a rat model of depression. Brain Res., 896, 43 47.
114. Zhao, R., Chen, H. Sharp, B.M. (2007) Nicotine-induced norepinephrine release in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and amygdala is mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and nitric oxide in the nucleus tractus solitarius. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 320, 837 844.
115. Zucker, M., Weizman, A. Rehavi, M. (2005) Repeated swim stress leads to down-regulation of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 in rat brain nucleus accumbens and striatum. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 15, 199 201.