Resuspension of urban soils as a persistent source of lead poisoning in children: A review and new directions

Applied Geochemistry

Volumn 23, Issue 8, 2008, Pages 2021-2039

  Laidlaw, Mark A S ^a   Filippelli, Gabriel M ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION; ATMOSPHERICS; BLOOD; GEOLOGIC MODELS; HEALTH; HEALTH RISKS; LEAD ALLOYS; OCCUPATIONAL RISKS; SOILS;

ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS; ATMOSPHERIC PARTICULATES; CONTACT SURFACES; ENVIRONMENTAL BURDENS; FINE PARTICULATES; INTERAGENCY MONITORING OF PROTECTED VISUAL ENVIRONMENTS (IMPROVE); PARTICULATE LOADING; PARTICULATE RESUSPENSION; PRIMARY PATHWAY; RE-SUSPENSION; RESPIRATORY HEALTH; SEASONAL PATTERNS; URBAN SOILS; URBAN YOUTH;

LEAD;

BLOOD; CHILD HEALTH; HEALTH RISK; LEAD; PERSISTENCE; POISONING; POLLUTANT SOURCE; RESUSPENSION; URBAN AREA;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 48149090673     PISSN: 08832927     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.05.009     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Abt E., Suh H.H., Allen G., and Koutrakis P. Characterization of indoor particle sources: a study conducted in the metropolitan Boston area. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 108 (2000) 35-44
2. Adgate J.L., Rhoads G.G., and Lioy P.J. The use of isotope ratios to apportion sources of lead in Jersey City, NJ, house dust wipe samples. Sci. Total Environ. 221 (1998) 171-180
3. Adgate J.L., Willis R.D., Buckley T.J., Chow J.C., Watson J.G., Rhoads G.G., and Lioy P.J. Chemical mass balance source apportionment of lead in house dust. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32 (1998) 108-114
4. Al-Radday A.S., Davies B.E., and French M.J. Le aded windows as a source of lead within homes. Sci. Total Environ. 132 (1993) 43-51
5. Archer A., and Barratt R.S. Lead levels in Birmingham dust. Sci. Total Environ. 6 (1976) 275-286
6. Arimoto R., Kirchner T., Webb J., Conley M., Stewart B., Schoep D., and Walthall M. 239,240Pu and inorganic substances in aerosols from the vicinity of the waste isolation pilot plant: the importance of resuspension. Health Phys. 83 (2002) 456-470
7. Aschengrau A., Beiser A., Bellinger D., Copenhafer D., and Weitzman M. The impact of soil le ad abatement on urban children's blood lead levels: phase II results from the Boston lead-in-soil demonstration project. Environ. Res. 67 (1994) 125-148
8. Bates M., Malcolm M., Wyatt R., Garrett N., Galloway Y., Speir T., and Read D. Lead in children from older housing areas in the Wellington region. NZ Med. J. 108 (1995) 400-404
9. Bernard S.M. Should the centers for disease control and prevention's childhood lead poisoning intervention level be lowered?. Am. J. Public Health 93 (2003) 1253-1260
10. Bernard S.M., and McGeehin M.A. Prevalence of blood lead levels ≥5 μg/dL among US children 1-5 years of age and socioeconomic and demographic factors associated with blood of lead levels 5-10 μg/dL, third National health and nutrition examination survey, 1988-1994. Pediatrics 112 (2003) 1308-1313
11. Billick I.H., Curran A.S., and Shier D.R. Analysis of pediatric blood lead levels in New York City for 1970-1976. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 31 (1979) 183-190
12. Binns H.J., Gray K.A., Chen T., Finster M.E., Peneff N., Schaefer P.D., Ovsey V., Fernandes J., Brown M., and Dunlap B. Evaluation of landscape coverings to reduce soil lead hazards in urban residential yards: the safer yards project. Environ. Res. 96 (2004) 127-138
13. Blanksma L.A., Sachs H.K., Murray E.F., and O'Connell M.J. Incidence of high blood lead levels in Chicago children. Pediatrics 44 (1969) 661-667
14. Blatt S.D., and Weinberger H.L. Prevalence of lead exposure in a clinic using 1991 centers for disease control and prevention recommendations. Am. J. Diseases Child. 147 (1993) 761-763
15. Bornschein R.L., Succop P.A., Krafft P.A., Clark C.S., Peace B., and Hammond P.B. Exterior surface dust lead, interior house dust lead and childhood lead exposure in an urban environment. In: Hemphill D.D. (Ed). Trace Substances in Environmental Health vol. XX (1986), University of Missouri, Columbia 322-332
16. Brinkmann R. Lead pollution in soils in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin. J. Environ. Sci. Health A29 (1994) 909-919
17. Butler J.D., MacMurdo S.D., and Middleton D.R. Motor vehicle generated pollution in urban areas. J. Environ. Health 83 (1975) 24-35
18. Campbell C., Schwarz D.F., Rich D., and Dockery D.W. Effect of a follow-up professional home cleaning on serial dust and blood lead levels of urban children. Arch. Environ. Health 58 (2003) 771-780
19. Canfield R.L., Henderson C.R., Cory-Slechta D.A., Cox C., Jusko T.A., and Lanphear B.P. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 g/dL: the Rochester cohort study. New Eng. J. Med. 348 (2007) 1517-1526
20. Caravanos J., Weiss A., and Jaeger R. An exterior and interior leaded dust deposition survey in New York city: results of a two year study. Environ. Res. 100 (2006) 159-164
21. Caravanos J., Weiss A., Blaise M., and Jaeger R. A survey of spatially distributed exterior dust lead loadings in New York City. Environ. Res. 100 (2006) 165-172
22. CDC, 2007. Blood Lead Levels Among Children in High-Risk Areas - California, 1987-1990. MMWR Weekly. May 01, 1992. 41(17); 291-294. Available: (accessed 1.11.2007).
23. Chaney R.L., and Mielke H.W. Standards for soil Le ad limitations in the United States. In: Heamphill D.D. (Ed). Trace Substances in Environmental Health vol. XX (1986), University of Missouri, Columbia 357-377
24. Chen W.N., Dong Z.B., Li Z.S., and Yang Z.T. Wind tunnel test of the influence on the erodibility of loessial sandy loam soils by wind. J. Arid Environ. 34 (1996) 391-402
25. Chiodo L.M., Covington C., Sokol R.J., Hannigan J.H., Jannise J., Ager J., Greenwald M., and Delaney-Black V. Blood lead levels and specific attention effects in young children. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 29 (2007) 538-546
26. Chirenje T., Ma L.Q., Reeves M., and Szulczewski M. Lead distribution in near-surface soils of two Florida cities: Gainesville and Miami. Geoderma 119 (2004) 113-120
27. Chlopecka A., Bacon J.R., Wilson M.J., and Kay J. Forms of cadmium, lead, and zinc in contaminated soils from southwest Poland. J. Environ. Qual. 25 (1996) 69-79
28. Clark H.F., Brabander D.J., and Erdil R.M. Sources, sinks, and exposure pathways of lead in urban garden soil. J. Environ. Qual. 35 (2006) 2066-2074
29. Clark H.F., Hausladen D.M., and Brabander D.J. Urban gardens: lead exposure, recontamination mechanisms, and implications for remediation design. Environ. Res. 107 (2008) 312-319
30. Clausnitzer H., and Singer M.J. Respirable-dust production from agricultural operations in the Sacramento Valley, California. J. Environ. Qual. 25 (1996) 877-884
31. Clausnitzer H., and Singer M.J. Environmental influences on respirable dust production from agricultural operations in California. Atmos. Environ. 34 (2000) 1739-1745
32. Cornelis W., and Gabriels D. The effect of surface moisture on the entrainment of dune sand by wind: an evaluation of selected models. Sedimentology 50 (2003) 771-790
33. Davies D.J.A., Watt J.M., and Thornton I. Lead levels in Birmingham dusts and soils. Sci. Total Environ. 67 (1987) 177-185
34. Davis J., and Gulson B. Ceiling (attic) dust: a "museum" of contamination and potential hazard. Environ. Res. 99 (2005) 177-194
35. de Freitas C.U., De Capitán E.M., and Gouveia N. Lead exposure in an urban community: investigation of risk factors and assessment of the impact of lead abatement measures. Environ. Res. 103 (2007) 338-344
36. Diawara M.M., Litt J.S., Unis D., Alfonso N., Martinez L., Crock J.G., Smith D.B., and Carsella J. Arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in surface soils, Pueblo, Colorado: implications for population health risk. Environ. Geochem. Health 28 (2006) 297-315
37. Diemel J.A.L., Brunekreef B., Boleij J.S.M., Biersteker K., and Veenstra S. The arnhem lead study. II. Indoor pollution, and indoor/outdoor relationships. Environ. Res. 25 (1981) 449-456
38. Dixon S., McLaine P., Kawecki C., Maxfield R., Duran S., Hynes P., and Plant T. The effectiveness of low-cost soil treatments to reduce soil and dust le ad hazards: the Boston lead safe yards low cost le ad in soil treatment, demonstration and evaluation. Environ. Res. 102 (2006) 113-124
39. Dixon S., Wilson J., and Galke W. Friction and impact surfaces: are they lead-based paint hazards?. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 4 (2007) 855-863
40. Dong A., Chesters G., and Simsiman G.V. Metal composition of soil, sediments, and urban dust and dirt samples from the Menomonee River Watershed, Wisconsin, USA. Water Air Soil Pollut. 22 (1984) 257-275
41. Duzgoren-Aydn, N.S., Weiss, A.L., in press. Use and abuse of Pb-isotope fingerprinting technique and GIS mapping data to assess lead in environmental studies. Environ. Geochem. Health, 2008, doi:10.1007/s10653-008-9179-4.
42. Edlefson N.E., and Anderson A.B.C. Thermodynamics of soil moisture. Hilgardia 15 (1943) 31-298
43. Edwards R.D., Yurkow E.J., and Lioy P.J. Seasonal deposition of housedusts onto household surfaces. Sci. Total Environ. 224 (1998) 69-80
44. Elhelu M.A., Caldwell D.T., and Hirpassa W.D. Lead in inner-city soil and its possible contribution to children's blood lead. Arch. Environ. Health 50 (1995) 165-169
45. Elwood P.C. The lead debate. Environ. Health 92 (1984) 12-14
46. Ericson J.E., and Mishra S.I. Soil lead concentrations and prevalence of hyperactive behavior among school children in Ottawa, Canada. Environ. Internat. 16 (1990) 247-256
47. Facchetti, S., Geiss, F., 1982. Isotopic Lead Experiment: A Status Report. CEC Publication Number EUR 8352N, Luxembourg.
48. Farfel M.R., and Chisolm J.J. Health and environmental outcomes of traditional and modified practices for abatement of residential lead-based paint. Am. J. Public Health 80 (1990) 240-1245
49. Farfel M.R., and Chisolm J.J. An evaluation of experimental practices for abatement of residential lead-based paint: report on a pilot project. Environ. Res. 55 (1991) 199-212
50. Fergusson J.E. Lead: petrol lead in the environment and its contribution to human blood lead levels. Sci. Total Environ. 50 (1986) 1-54
51. Fett M.J., Mira M., Smith J., Alperstein G., Causer J., Brokenshire T., Gulson B., and Cannata S. Community prevalence survey of children's blood le ad levels and environmental lead contamination in inner Sydney. Med. J. Aust. 157 (1992) 441-445
52. Filippelli G.M., Laidlaw M., Latimer J., and Raftis R. Urban lead poisoning and medical geology: an unfinished story. GSA Today 15 (2005) 4-11
53. Gagne D. Blood lead levels in Noranda children following removal of smelter-contaminated yard soil. Can. J. Public Health (Revue Canadienne de Sante Publique) 85 (1979) 163-166
54. Gloag D. Is low-level lead pollution dangerous?. Brit. Med. J. 281 (1980) 1622-1625
55. Griffith D. The geographic distribution of soil lead concentration: description and concerns. Urban Reg. Informat. Syst. Assoc. J. 14 (2002) 5-15
56. Haley V.B., and Talbot T.O. Seasonality and trend in blood lead levels of New York State children. BMC Pediatr. 4 (2004) 8
57. Harris A., and Davidson C. The role of resuspended soil in lead flows in the California south coast air basin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 (2005) 7410-7415
58. Hayes E.B., McElvaine M.D., Orbach H.G., Fernandez A.M., Lyne S., and Matte T.D. Long term trends in blood le ad levels among children in Chicago: relationship to air lead levels. Pediatrics 93 (1994) 195-200
59. Hedberg E., Gidhagen L., and Johansson L. Source contributions to PM10 and arsenic concentrations in central Chile using positive matrix factorization. Atmos. Environ. 39 (2005) 549-561
60. Hollinger S.E., and Isard S.A. A soil moisture climatology of Illinois. J. Climatol. 7 (1994) 822-833
61. Hopke P.K., Lamb R.E., and Natusch D.F.S. Multielemental characterization of urban roadway dust. Environ. Sci. Technol. 14 (1980) 164-172
62. Hosiokangas J., Vallius M., Ruuskanen J., Mirme A., and Pekkanen J. Resuspended dust episodes as an urban air-quality problem in subarctic regions. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 30 Suppl. 2 (2004) 28-35
63. Hunt A., Johnson D.L., and Griffith D.A. Mass transfer of soil indoors by track-in on footwear. Sci. Total Environ. 370 (2006) 360-371
64. Hunt A., Johnson D.L., and Thornton I. Apportioning the sources of lead in house dusts in the London borough of Richmond, England. Sci. Total Environ. 138 (1993) 183-206
65. Hunter J.M. The summer disease; an integrative model of the seasonality aspects of childhood BLL poisoning. J. Social Sci. Med. 11 (1977) 691-703
66. Hwang Y.H., and Wang J.D. Temporal fluctuation of the lead level in the cord blood of neonates in Taipei. Arch. Environ. Health 45 (1990) 42-45
67. ICN (Illinois Climate Network Data), 2007. Available: (accessed 15.11.2007).
68. Imperato M., Adamo P., Naimo D., Arienzo M., Stanzione D., and Violante P. Spatial distribution of heavy metals in urban soils of Naples city, Italy. Environ. Pollut. 124 (2003) 247-256
69. IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments), 2007. Available: / (accessed 15.11.2007).
70. Iqbal S., Muntner P., Batuman V., and Rabito F. Estimated burden of blood lead levels ≥5 μg/dL in 1999-2002 and declines from 1988 to 1994. Environ. Res. (2008) 106: available on-line doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.01.015
71. Iverson J.D., Pollack J.B., Greenley R., and White BR. Saltation threshold on Mars: the effect of interparticle force, surface roughness, and low atmospheric density. Icarus 29 (1976) 318-393
72. Jacobsen P. Exposure of children to lead from contaminated soil. Ugeskr Laeger 11 158 (1996) 1499-1502
73. Jin A., Teschke K., and Copes R. The relationship of lead in soil to le ad in blood and implications for standard setting. Sci. Total Environ. 208 (1997) 23-40
74. Johnson D., and Bretsch J. Soil lead and children's BLL Levels in Syracuse, NY, USA. Environ. Geochem. Health 24 (2002) 375-385
75. Johnson D., McDade K., and Griffith D. Seasonal variation in pediatric blood levels in Syracuse, NY, USA. Environ. Geochem. Health 18 (1996) 81-88
76. Jusko T.A., Henderson Jr. C.R., Lanphear B.P., Cory-Slechta D.A., Parsons P.J., and Canfield R.L. Blood le ad concentrations less than 10 micrograms per deciliter and child intelligence at 6 years of age. Environ. Health Perspectiv. (2007) 10.1289/ehp.10424
77. Kemp F.W., Neti P., Howell R.W., Wenger P., Louria D.B., and Bogden J.D. Elevated blood lead concentrations and vitamin D deficiency in winter and summer in young urban children. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 115 (2007) 630-635
78. Kimbrough R.D., Falk H., Stehr P., and Fries G. Health implications of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) contamination of residential soil. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 14 (1984) 47-93
79. Kinney P., Chillrud S., Ramstrom S., Ross J., and Spengler J. Exposures to multiple air toxics in New York City. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 110 (2002) 539-546
80. Ko S., Schaefer P.D., Viacario C.M., and Binns H.J. Relationships of video assessments of touching and mouthing behaviors during outdoor play in urban residential yards to parental perceptions of child behaviors and blood lead levels. J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 17 (2007) 47-57
81. Kuhns H., Etyemezian V., Landwehr D., MacDougall C., Pitchford M., and Green M. Testing re-entrained aerosol kinetic emissions from (TRAKER): a new approach to infer silt loading on roadways. Atmos. Environ. 35 (2001) 2815-2825
82. Kurkjian C.R., and Flegal A.R. Isotopic evidence of the persistent dominance of blood lead concentrations by previous gasoline lead emissions in Yerevan, Armenia. Environ. Res. 93 (2003) 308-315
83. Kurkjian C.R., Dunlap C.E., and Flegal A.R. Lead isotope tracking of atmospheric response to post-industrial conditions in Yerevan, Armenia. Atmos. Environ. 36 (2002) 1421-1429
84. Kutlaca, A., 1998. Mechanisms of entry of lead-bearing dusts into houses in port Pirie. Ph.D. Thesis. Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, Univ. Adelaide, South Australia.
85. Laidlaw, M., 2001. Distribution and sources of metals in soils of Marion County, Indiana. Master's Thesis. Indiana Univ.
86. Laidlaw M., and Filippelli G.M. Reducing the lead-load for urban youth: the role of atmospheric soil re-suspension as a significant public health threat in the United States. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Prog. 38 7 (2006) 366
87. Laidlaw M.A.S., Mielke H.W., Filippelli G.M., Johnson D.L., and Gonzales C.R. Seasonality and children's blood lead levels: developing a predictive model using climatic variables and blood lead data from Indianapolis, Indiana, Syracuse, New York, and New Orleans, Louisiana (USA). Environ. Health Perspectiv. 113 (2005) 793-800
88. Langlois P., Smith L., Fleming S., Gould R., Goel V., and Gibson B. Blood lead levels in Toronto children and abatement of lead-contaminated soil and house dust. Arch. Environ. Health 51 (1996) 59-67
89. Lankey R.L., Davidson C.I., and McMichael F.C. Mass balance for lead in the California south coast air basin: an update. Environ. Res. 78 (1998) 86-93
90. Lanphear B.P., Emond M., Jacobs D.E., Weitzman M., Tanner M., and Winter N.L. A side-by-side comparison of dust collection methods for sampling lead-contaminated house dust. Environ. Res. 68 (1995) 114-123
91. Lanphear B.P., Succop P., Roda S., and Henningsen G. The effect of soil abatement on blood lead levels in children living near a former smelting and milling operation. Public Health Rep. 118 (2003) 83-91
92. Lee D.S., Garland J.A., and Fox A.A. Atmospheric concentrations of trace elements in urban areas of the United Kingdom. Atmos. Environ. 28 (1994) 2691-2713
93. Lee P.-K., Touray J.C., Baillif P., and Ildefonse J.P. Heavy metal contamination of settling particles in a retention pond long the A-71 motorway in Sologne, France. Sci. Total Environ. 201 (1997) 1-15
94. Lejano R.P., and Ericsson J.E. Tragedy of the temporal commons: soil-bound lead and the anachronicity of risk. J. Environ. Plan. Manage. 48 (2005) 299-318
95. Lenschow P., Abraham H., Kutzner K., Lutz M., Preusz J., and Reichenbacher W. Some ideas about the sources of PM10. Atmos. Environ. 35 (2001) 23-33
96. Lepow M.L., Bruckman L., Gillette M., Markowitz S., Robino R., and Kapish J. Investigations into sources of lead in the environment of urban children. Environ. Res. 10 (1975) 415-426
97. Lepow M.L., Bruckman L., Rubino R.A., Markowitz S., Gillette M., and Kapish J. Role of airborne lead in increased body burden of lead in Hartford children. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 7 (1974) 99-102
98. Lewin M.D., Sarasua S., and Jones P.A. A multivariate linear regression model for predicting children's blood lead levels based on soil lead levels: a study at four superfund sites. Environ. Res. 81 (1999) 52-61
99. Linton R.W., Natusch D.S.F., Solomon R.L., and Evans Jr. C.A. Physicochemical characterization of lead in urban dusts. A microanalytical approach to lead tracing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 14 (1980) 159-164
100. Lough G.C., Schauer J.J., Park J.S., Shafer M.M., DeMinter J.T., and Weinstein J.P. Emissions of metals associated with motor vehicle roadways. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 (2005) 826-836
101. Lu Y., Gong Z., Zhang G., and Zhang B. Heavy metal concentration in Nanjing urban soils and their affecting factors. Yingyong Shengtai Xuebao 15 (2004) 123-126
102. Maddaloni M., LoIacono N., Manton W., Blum C., Drexler J., and Graziano J. Bioavailability of soil-borne lead in adults by stable isotope dilution. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 106 (1998) 1589-1594
103. Madrid L., Diaz-Barrientos E., and Madrid F. Distribution of heavy metal contents of urban soils in parks of Seville. Chemosphere 49 (2002) 1301-1308
104. Maisonet M., Bove F.J., and Kaye W.E. A case-control study to determine risk factors for elevated blood lead levels in children, Idaho. Toxicol. Indust. Health 13 (1997) 67-72
105. Manta D.S., Angelone M., Bellanca A., Neri R., and Sprovieri M. Heavy metals in urban soils: a case study from the city of Palermo (Sicily), Italy. Sci. Total Environ. 300 (2002) 229-243
106. Manton W.I., Angle C.R., Stanek K.L., Reese Y.R., and Kuehnemann A.J. Acquisition and retention of lead by young children. Environ. Res. 82 (2001) 60-80
107. Marrero O., Meigs J.W., Stark A.D., and Quah R.F. Seasonal patterns in children's blood lead levels: a second peak in late winter. Connect. Med. 47 (1983) 1-5
108. McKenna-Neuman C., and Nickling W.G. A theoretical and wind tunnel investigation of the effect of capillary water on the entrainment of sediment by wind. Can. J. Soil Sci. 69 (1989) 79-96
109. Mielke H.W. Lead in New Orleans soils: new images of an urban environment. Environ. Geochem. Health 16 (1994) 123-128
110. Mielke H.W. Lead in the inner cities. Am. Sci. 87 (1999) 62-73
111. Mielke H.W., and Reagan P.L. Soil is an important pathway of human lead exposure. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 106 (1998) 217-229
112. Mielke H.W., Adams J.E., Huff B., Pepersack J., Reagan P.L., Stoppel D., and Mielke Jr. P.W. Dust control as a means of reducing inner-city childhood Pb exposure. Trace Substan. Environ. Health 25 (1992) 121-128
113. Mielke H.W., Anderson J.C., Berry K.J., Mielke Jr. P.W., Chaney R.L., and Leech M. Lead concentrations in inner-city soils as a factor in the child lead problem. Am. J. Public Health 73 (1983) 1366-1369
114. Mielke H.W., Barroughs S., Wade R., Yarrow T., and Mielke Jr. P.W. Urban lead in Minnesota: soil transect results of four cities. J. Minnesota Acad. Sci. 50 (1984/85) 19-24
115. Mielke H.W., Dugas D., Mielke Jr. P.W., Smith K.S., Smith S.L., and Gonzales C.R. Associations between soil lead and children's blood lead in urban New Orleans and rural Lafourche Parish of Louisiana. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 105 (1997) 950-954
116. Mielke H.W., Gonzales C., Powell E., and Mielke Jr. P.W. Urban soil-lead (Pb) footprint: retrospective comparison of public and private properties in New Orleans. Environ. Geochem. Health 5 (2007) 1-2 10.1007/s10653-007-9111-3
117. Mielke H.W., Powell E.T., Gonzales C.R., Mielke Jr. P.W., Ottesen R.T., and Langedal M. New Orleans soil le ad (Pb) cleanup using Mississippi River alluvium: need, feasibility, and cost. Environ. Sci. Technol. 8 (2006) 2784-2789
118. Mielke H.W., Wang G., Gonzales C.R., Le B., Quach V.N., and Mielke Jr. P.W. PAH and metal mixtures in New Orleans soils and sediments. Sci. Total Environ. 281 (2001) 217-227
119. Miranda M.L., Kim D., Galeano M.A., Pau l.C.J., Hull A.P., and Morgan S.P. The relationship between early childhood blood lead levels and performance on end-of-grade tests. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 115 (2007) 1242-1247
120. Mosley R.B., Greenwell D.J., Sparks L.E., Guo Z., Tucker W.G., Fortmann R., and Whitfield C. Penetration of ambient fine particles into the indoor environment. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 34 (2001) 127-136
121. Nevin R., Jacobs D.E., Berg M., and Cohen J. Monetary benefits of preventing childhood lead poisoning with lead-safe window replacement. Environ. Res. 106 (2008) 410-419
122. Nicholson K.W., Branson J.R., Giess P., and Cannell R.J. The effects of vehicle activity on particle resuspension. J. Aerosol Sci. 20 (1989) 1425-1428
123. Nickovic S., Kallos G., Papadopoulos A., and Kakaliagou O. A model prediction of desert dust cycle in the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 18113-18130
124. Nigg J.T., Knottnerus G.M., Martel M.M., Nikolas M., Cavanagh K., Karmaus W., and Rappley M.D. Low blood lead levels associated with clinically diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mediated by weak cognitive control. Biol. Psychiat. 63 (2008) 325-331
125. NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), 2007. Available: (accessed 15.05.2007).
126. Paode R.D., Sofuoglu S.C., Sivadechathep J., Noll K.E., Holsen T.M., and Keeler G.J. Dry deposition fluxes and mass size distributions of Pb, Cu, and Zn measured in southern Lake Michigan during AEOLOS. Environ. Sci. Technol 32 (1998) 1629-1635
127. Peterson E.J., Jennings A.A., and Jun M.A. Screening level risk assessment of heavy metal contamination in Cleveland area commons. J. Environ. Eng. 132 (2006) 392-404
128. Rabinowitz M.B., and Needleman H.L. Temporal trends in the lead concentrations of umbilical cord blood. Science 216 (1982) 1429-1431
129. Rabinowitz M., Leviton A., Needleman H., Bellinger D., and Waternaux C. Environmental correlates of infant blood lead levels in Boston. Environ. Res. 38 (1985) 96-107
130. Reagan P.L., and Silbergeld E. Establishing a health based standard for lead in residential soils. Trace Substan. Environ. Health XXIII (1989) 199-238
131. Roberts J.R., Reigert J.R., Eberling M., and Hulsey T.C. Time required for blood lead levels to decline in nonchelated children. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 39 (2001) 153-160
132. Rothenberg S.J., Kondrashov V., Manalo M., Manton W.I., Khan F., Todd A.C., and Johnson C. Seasonal variation in bone lead contribution to blood lead during pregnancy. Environ. Res. 85 (2001) 191-194
133. Rothenberg S.J., Williams Jr. F.A., Delrahim S., Khan F., Kraft M., Lu M., Manolo M., Sanchez M., and Wooten D.J. Blood levels in children in South Central Los Angeles. Arch. Environ. Health 51 (1996) 383-388
134. Roux K.E., and Marra P.P. The presence and impact of environmental lead in passerine birds along an urban to rural land use gradient. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 53 (2007) 261-275
135. Samara C., and Voutsa D. Size distribution of airborne particulate matter and associated heavy metals in the roadside environment. Chemosphere 59 (2005) 1197-1206
136. Sayre J.W., and Katzel M.D. Household surface lead dust: its accumulation in vacant homes. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 29 (1979) 179-182
137. SCERP (Southwest Consortium for Environmental Research and Policy Research), 2007. SCERP Monograph Series no. 12, The US-Mexican Border Environment: Integrated Approach to Defining Particulate Matter Issues in the Paso del Norte Region. Available: (accessed 15.11.2005).
138. Schnaas L., Rothenberg S.J., Flores M.F., Martinez S., Hernandez C., Osorio E., Velasco S.R., and Perroni E. Reduced intellectual development in children with prenatal lead exposure. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 114 (2006) 791-797
139. Sezgin N., Ozcan H.K., Demir G., Nemlioglu S., and Bayat C. Determination of heavy metal concentrations in street dusts in Istanbul E-5 highway. Environ. Internat. 29 (2004) 979-985
140. Sheldrake S., and Stifelman M. A case study of lead contamination cleanup effectiveness at Bunker Hill. Sci. Total Environ. 303 (2003) 105-123
141. Sherman, M.H., Chan, R., 2004. Building Airtightness: Research and Practice. Energy Efficiency and, Renewable Energy, Building Technology Program of the US.
142. Simons E., ' J., Buckley T., Breysse P., and Eggleston P. Indoor environmental differences between inner city and suburban homes of children with asthma. J. Urban Health 84 (2007) 577-590
143. Stark A.D., Quah R.F., Meigs J.W., and De Louise E.R. Season as a factor in variability of blood lead levels in children. Connect. Med. 44 (1980) 1-5
144. Sterling D.A., Roegner K.C., Lewis R.D., Luke D.A., Wildner L.C., and Burchette S.M. Evaluation of four sampling methods for determining exposure of children to lead contaminated house dust. Environ. Res. 81 (1999) 130-141
145. Surkan P.J., Zhang A., Trachtenberg F., Daniel D.B., McKinlay S., and Bellinger D.C. Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels <10 μg/dL. Neurotoxicology 28 (2007) 1170-1177
146. Ter Haar G., and Aronow R. New information on lead in dirt and dust as related to the childhood lead problem. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 7 (1974) 83-89
147. Tijhuis L., Brattli B., and Saether O.M. A geochemical survey of topsoil in the City of Oslo, Norway. Environ. Geochem. Health 24 (2002) 67-94
148. Tong S., and Lam K. Home sweet home? A case study of household dust contamination in Hong Kong. Sci. Total Environ. 256 (2000) 115-123
149. USEPA, 1995. Seasonal Rhythms of BLL Levels: Boston, 1979-1983: Final Report. EPA 747-R-94-003. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
150. USEPA, 1996. Seasonal Trends in BLL Levels in Milwaukee: Statistical Methodology. EPA 747-R-95-010. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
151. USEPA, 2008. Exposure Factors Handbook. . US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
152. von Lindern I., Spalinger S., Petroysan V., and von Braun M. Assessing remedial effectiveness through the blood lead:soil/dust lead relationship at the Bunker Hill Superfund Site in the Silver Valley of Idaho. Sci. Total Environ. 303 (2003) 139-170
153. Wallace L., Emmerich S., and Reed H. Continuous measurements of air change rates in an occupied house for 1 year: the effect of temperature, wind, fans, and windows. J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 12 (2002) 230-296
154. Wang J., Ren H., and Zhang X. Distribution patterns of lead in urban soil and dust in Shenyang city, Northeast China. Environ. Geochem. Health 28 (2006) 53-59
155. Wells K.C., Witek M., Flatau P., Kreidenweis S.M., and Westphal D.L. An analysis of seasonal surface dust aerosol concentrations in the western US (2001-2004): observations and model predictions. Atmos. Environ. 41 (2007) 6585-6597
156. Wu X., Li L., Pan G., Ju Y., and Jiang H. Soil pollution of Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd in different city zones of Nanjing. Huanjing Kexue/Environ. Sci. 24 (2003) 105-111
157. Yiin L.M., Rhoads G.G., and Lioy P.J. Seasonal influences on childhood lead exposure. Environ. Health Perspectiv. 108 (2000) 177-182
158. Young T.M., Heeraman D.A., Sirin G., and Ashbaugh L.L. Resuspension of soil as a source of airborne lead near industrial facilities and highways. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 (2002) 2484-2490
159. Zhao P., Feng Y., Zhu T., and Wu J. Characterizations of resuspended dust in six cities of North China. Atmos. Environ. 40 (2006) 5807-5814
160. Ziegler E.E., Edwards B.B., Jensen R.L., Mahaffey K.R., and Foman S.J. Absorption and retention of lead by infants. Pediatr. Res. 12 (1978) 29-34