The origin of terrorist threats: Religious, separatist, or something else?

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 396-414

  Masters, Daniel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA WILMINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

Casualty rates; Ethno national terrorism; Mass casualty terrorism; New terrorism; Right wing religious terrorism; Terrorist threats

Indexed keywords

EID: 46749083814     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: 15561836     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550802073359     Document Type: Article

References (59)

1. Walter Enders and Todd Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening?: A Time Series Investigation," Journal of Conflict Resolution 44, no. 3 (June 2000): 307-332.
2. Kumar Ramakrishna and Andrew Tan, "The New Terrorism: Diagnosis and Prescriptions," in Andrew Tan and Kumar Ramakrishna, eds., The New Terrorism: Anatomy, Trends and Counter-strategies (Singapore: Eastern University Press, 2002), 3-29;
3. Bruce Hoffman, "The Emergence of the New Terrorism," in Andrew Tan and Kumar Ramakrishna, eds., The New Terrorism: Anatomy, Trends and Counter-strategies (Singapore: Eastern University Press, 2002), 30-49;
4. Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 94-95.
5. Robert Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005).
6. Enders and Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening?" (see note 1 above), 329.
7. Walter Enders and Todd Sandler, "Distribution of Transnational Terrorism among Countries by Income Class and Geography After 9/11," International Studies Quarterly 50, no. 2 (June 2006): 367-393.
8. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (see note 2 above), 91-93.
9. Enders and Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening?" (see note 1 above), 308.
10. David C. Rapoport, "The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism," in Audrey Judith Cronin and James M. Ludes, eds., Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2004), 46-73.
11. Ibid. Rapoport's characterization of waves of terrorism does not suggest that all terrorist activity is exclusively ethno-national (3rd wave) or religious (4th wave), but that in these periods one form is more dominant than others.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Enders and Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening?" (see note 1 above), 330.
15. Carlos Pestana Borros and Isabel Proença, "Mixed Logit Estimation of Radical Islamic Terrorism in Europe and North America," Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 2 (April 2005): 298-314.
16. Ramakrishna and Tan (see note 2 above), 6.
17. Ibid.
18. Hoffman, "The Emergence of the New Terrorism" (see note 2 above).
19. Mark Basile, "Going to the Source: Why Al Qaeda's Financial Network is Likely to Withstand the Current War on Terrorist Financing," in Ronald D. Howard and Reid L. Sawyer, eds., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Understanding the New Security Environment, Readings and Interpretations, 2nd ed. (Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 416-432.
20. Jeanne N. Knutson, "The Terrorists' Dilemma: Some Implicit Rules of the Game," Terrorism: An International Journal 4 (1980): 195-222.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ronald D. Crelinsten, "Terrorism and Counterterrorism in a Multicentric World: Challenges and Opportunities," in Max Taylor and John Horgan, eds., The Future of Terrorism (London: Frank Cass Press, 2001), 170-196.
24. Chris Quillen, "A Historical Analysis of Mass Casualty Bombers," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 25, no. 5 (September 2002): 279-292.
25. Crelinsten (see note 21 above), 183.
26. Quillen (see note 22 above), 287-288.
27. Ibid.
28. Daniel Masters, "Support and Nonsupport for Nationalist Rebellion: A Prospect Theory Approach," Political Psychology 25, no. 5 (October 2004): 703-726.
29. Crelinsten (see note 21 above).
30. Enders and Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening" (see note 1 above).
31. Pape (see note 3 above), 22.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Assaf Maghadam, "Suicide Terrorism, Occupation, and Globalization of Martyrdom: A Critique of Dying to Win," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29, no. 8 (December 2006): 707-729.
35. In some cases international terrorism is treated as a separate category. If we look at international terrorism, though, it is easy to define it more as a tactical adaptation that relies on global rather than domestic theaters of operation. The motivational characteristics remain unchanged, meaning left-wing groups engage in international terrorism (e.g., Red Army Faction, Japanese Red Army); Ethno-National Groups operate at the international level (Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Black September); and some right-wing/religious groups operate at the international level (Al-Qaeda and Hezbollah).
36. Space limitations prevent including a complete appendix that lists all terrorist groups from the ITERATE dataset in the defined ideological categories. This appendix is available via the internet at http://people.uncw.edu/mastersd/ appendix.doc
37. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (see note 2 above), 17;
38. John Weinzierl, "Terrorism: Its Origin and History," in Akorlie A. Nyatepe-Coo and Dorothy Zeisler-Vralsted. eds., Understanding Terrorism: Threats in an Uncertain World (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), 33.
39. Grant Wardlaw, Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics, and Counter-measures, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 54.
40. Daniel Byman, "The Logic of Ethnic Terrorism," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 21, no. 2 (1998): 149-169.
41. Catherine Wessinger, How the Millennium Comes Violently: From Jonestown to Heaven's Gate (New York: Steven Bridges Press, 2000), 7-9.
42. Brad Whistle, "Ideological Mutation and Millennial Belief in the American Neo-Nazi Movement," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 24, no. 2 (January 2001): 89-106.
43. Paul Wilkinson, "Why Modern Terrorism: Differentiating Types and Distinguishing Ideological Motivations," in Charles W. Kegley, ed., The New Global Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), 123.
44. Wardlaw (see note 36 above), 54.
45. Wessinger (see note 38 above), 5.
46. Cindy Combs, Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997), 14-15.
47. Edward F. Mickolus, Todd Sandler, and Jean M. Murdock, International Terrorism in the 1980s: A Chronology of Events (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1989).
48. F. Gross, Political Violence and Terror in 19th and 20th Century Russia and Eastern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
49. Walter Enders and Todd Sandler, "After 9/11: Is it all Different Now?" Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 2 (April 2005): 259-277.
50. Ibid.
51. Enders and Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening?" (see note 1 above).
52. Edward F. Mickolus, Todd Sandler, Jean M. Murdock, and Peter A. Flemming, International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events (ITERATE 1968-2005) (Dunn Loring, VA: Vinyard Software).
53. Enders and Sandler, "Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening?" (see note 1 above), 313-314.
54. Quillen (see note 22 above), 280.
55. Aaron Clauset, Maxwell Young, and Kristian Skrede Gleditsch, "On the Frequency of Severe Terrorist Events," Journal of Conflict Resolution 51, no. 1 (February 2007): 58-87.
56. Barros and Proença (see note 13 above), 306.
57. National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, "The MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base," http://www.tbk.org/GroupRegionModule.jsp, accessed March 5-8, 2006.
58. U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Publication 11038, 2004).
59. Information Project: Database of Terrorist Organizations and Activity, "Organizations by Name," http://www.theinfomrationproject.org/ orgindex.php?sort=p, accessed March 5-9, 2006.