Protecting rare, little known, old-growth forest-associated fungi in the Pacific Northwest USA: A case study in fungal conservation

Mycological Research

Volumn 112, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 613-638

  Molina, Randy ^a  

^a PACIFIC NORTHWEST RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

Author keywords

Coarse fine filter; Fungal rarity; Fungal reserves; Habitat conservation; Northwest Forest Plan

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY; FUNGUS; HABITAT CONSERVATION; OLD-GROWTH FOREST; RARITY; SPECIES CONSERVATION;

CLASSIFICATION; ECOSYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FUNGUS; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; MICROBIOLOGY; REVIEW; SPECIES EXTINCTION; TREE; UNITED STATES;

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES; ECOSYSTEM; EXTINCTION, BIOLOGICAL; FUNGI; PACIFIC STATES; TREES;

CALIFORNIA; NORTH AMERICA; OREGON; UNITED STATES; WASHINGTON [UNITED STATES];

FUNGI;

EID: 44649096313     PISSN: 09537562     EISSN: 14698102     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2007.12.005     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Agee J.A. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests (1993), Island Press, Washington, DC
2. Agresti A. An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis (1996), John Wiley & Sons, New York
3. Allison M. The conservation of fungi on reserves managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 144-155
4. Arnolds E. Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 35 (1991) 209-244
5. Arnolds E. The future of fungi in Europe: threats, conservation and management. In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 64-80
6. Berg A., Ehnström B., Gustafsson L., Hallingbäck T., Jonsell M., and Weslien J. Threatened plant, animal, and fungus species in Swedish forests: distribution and habitat associations. Conservation Biology 8 (1994) 718-731
7. Berglund H., Edman M., and Ericson L. Temporal variation of wood-fungi diversity in boreal old-growth forests: implications for monitoring. Ecological Applications 15 (2005) 970-982
8. Berglund H., and Jonsson B.G. Nested plant and fungal communities: the importance of area and habitat quality in maximizing species capture in boreal old-growth forests. Biological Conservation 112 (2003) 319-328
9. Briggs J., and Leigh J. Rare or Threatened Australian Plants (1996), CSIRO, Melbourne
10. Buchanan P.K., and May T.W. Conservation of New Zealand and Australian fungi. New Zealand Journal of Botany 41 (2003) 407-421
11. Burdsall H.H., Volk T.J., and Ammirati J.F. Bridgeoporus, a new genus to accommodate Oxyporus nobilissimus (Basidomycota, Polyporaceae). Mycotaxon 60 (1996) 387-395
12. Castellano M.A. Towards a RED list for Oregon macrofungi. In: Kay T.N., Liston A., Love R.M., Luoma D.L., Meinke R.J., and Wilson M.V. (Eds). Conservation and Management of Native Plants and Fungi (1997), Native Plant Society of Oregon, Corvallis 222-226
13. Castellano M.A., Cázares E., Fondrick B., and Dreisbach T. Handbook to Additional Fungal Species of Special Concern in the Northwest Forest Plan. [General technical report PNW-GTR-572.] (2003), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
14. Castellano M.A., Smith J.E., O'Dell T., Cázares E., and Nugent S. Handbook to Strategy 1 Fungal Taxa from the Northwest Forest Plan. [General technical report PNW-GTR-476.] (1999), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
15. Castellano M.A., Trappe J.M., and Luoma D.L. Sequestrate fungi. In: Mueller G.M., Bills G.F., and Foster M.S. (Eds). Biodiversity of Fungi: inventory and mornitoring methods (2004), Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA 197-213
16. Courtecuisse R. Current trends and perspectives for the global conservation of fungi. In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 7-18
17. Cowden MM, 2002. A study of the current range and habitat of fuzzy sandozi conks (Bridgeoporus nobilisimus) throughout Pacific Northwest forests. MSc thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
18. Cunningham R.B., and Lindenmayer D.B. Modeling count data of rare species: some statistical issues. Ecology 86 (2005) 1135-1142
19. DellaSala D.A., and Williams J.E. The Northwest Forest Plan: a global model of forest management in contentious times. Conservation Biology 20 (2006) 274-276
20. Dighton J., White J.F., and Oudemans P. The Fungal Community: its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem (2005), CRC Press, Boca Ratan, FL
21. Dreisbach T.A., Smith J.E., and Molina R. Challenges of modeling fungal habitat: when and where do you find chanterelles?. In: Scott J.M., Heglund P.J., Morrison M., Raphael M., Haufler J., and Wall B. (Eds). Predicting Species Occurrence: Issues of Scale and Accuracy (2001), Island Press, Covello, CA 475-481
22. Dunham S.M., O'Dell T.E., and Molina R. Analysis of nrDNA sequences and microsatellite allele frequencies reveals a cryptic chanterelle species Cantharellus cascadensis sp. nov. from the American Pacific Northwest. Mycological Research 107 (2003) 1163-1177
23. Dunham S.M., O'Dell T.E., and Molina R. Spatial analysis of within-population microsatellite variability reveals restricted gene flow in the Pacific golden chanterelle (Cantharellus formosus). Mycologia 98 (2006) 250-259
24. Dunham S.M., O'Dell T.E., and Molina R. Forest stand age and the occurrence of chanterelle (Cantharellus) species in Oregon's central Cascade mountains. Mycological Research 110 (2006) 1433-1440
25. Duncan S. Paradoxes in Science: a new view of rarity. [Science Findings Issue 35] (2001), Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
26. Edman M., Kruys N., and Jonsson B.G. Local dispersal sources strongly affect colonization patterns of wood-decaying fungi on spruce logs. Ecological Applications 14 (2004) 893-901
27. Edwards Jr. T.C., Cutler R., Geiser L., Alegria J., and McKenzie D. Assessing rarity and seral stage association of species with low detectability: lichens in western Oregon and Washington forests. Ecological Applications 14 (2004) 414-424
28. Edwards Jr. T.C., Cutler R., Zimmermann N.E., Geiser L., and Alegria J. Model-based stratifications for enhancing the detection of rare ecological events. Ecology 86 (2005) 1081-1090
29. Exeter RL, Norvell LL, Cázares E, 2006. Ramaria of the Pacific Northwestern United States. [USDI BLM/OR/WA/PT-06/050-1972.] Salem, OR.
30. Flather CH, Sieg CH, 2007. Species rarity: definition, classification, and causes. In: Raphael MG, Molina R, (eds) Conservation of Rare or Little-known Species: Biological, Social, and Economic Considerations. Island, Press, Covelo, CA, pp. 40-66.
31. Franklin J.F., and Dyrness C.T. Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington (1988), Oregon State Univerity Press, Corvallis, OR
32. Giachini AJ, 2004. Systematics, phylogeny, and ecology of Gomphus sensu lato. PhD thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
33. Ginns J. The taxonomy and distribution of rare or uncommon species of Albatrellus in western North America. Canadian Journal of Botany 75 (1997) 261-273
34. Gjerde I., Saetersdal M., Rolstad J., Blom H.H., and Storaunet K.O. Fine-scale diversity and rarity hotspots in northern forests. Conservation Biology 18 (2004) 1032-1042
35. Halpern C.B., and Spies T.A. Plant species diversity in natural and managed forests of the Pacific Northwest. Ecological Applications 5 (1995) 913-934
36. Hansen A.J., Rotella J.J., Kraska M.P.V., and Brown D. Dynamic habitat and population analysis: an approach to resolve the biodiversity manager's dilemma. Ecological Applications 9 (1999) 1459-1476
37. Harvey A.E., Larsen M.J., and Jurgenson M.F. Comparative distribution of ectomycorrhizae in soils of three western Montana forest habitat types. Forest Science 25 (1979) 350-358
38. Haufler J.B., Mehl C.A., and Roloff G.J. Using a coarse-filter approach with species assessment for ecosystem management. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24 (1996) 200-208
39. Hawksworth D.L. Fungi and international biodiversity initiatives. Biodiversity and Conservation 6 (1997) 661-668
40. Hawksworth D.L. The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1.5 million species estimate revisited. Mycological Research 105 (2001) 1422-1432
41. Haynes R.W., Bormann B.T., Lee D.C., and Martin J.R. Northwest Forest Plan-the First Ten Years (1994-2003): a synthesis of monitoring and research results. [General technical report PNW-GTR-651] (2006), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
42. Horton T.R., and Bruns T.D. The molecular revolution in ectomycorrhizal ecology: peeking into the black-box. Molecular Ecology 10 (2001) 1855-1871
43. Humpert A.J., Muench E., Giachini J., Castellano M.A., and Spatafora J.W. Molecular phylogenetics of Ramaria and related genera: evidence from nuclear large subunit and mitochondrial small subunit rDNA sequences. Mycologia 93 (2001) 465-477
44. Hunter M.L. Coping with ignorance: the coarse-filter strategy for maintaining biodiversity. In: Kohm K.A. (Ed). Balancing on the Brink of Extinction (1991), Island Press, Covelo, CA 266-281
45. Hunter M.L. A mesofilter conservation strategy to complement fine and coarse filters. Conservation Biology 19 (2005) 1025-1029
46. Jalink L.M., and Nauta M.M. Recognising and managing mycologically valuable sites in the Netherlands. In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 89-94
47. Johnson K.N., Holthausen R., Shannon M., and Sedell J. Forest ecosystem management assessment team (FEMAT). In: Johnson K.N., Swanson F., Herring M., and Greene S. (Eds). Bioregional Assessments: science at the crossroads of management and policy (1999), Island Press, Covelo, CA 87-116
48. Kiester A.R., Scott J.M., Csuti B., Noss R.F., Butterfield B., Sahr K., and White D. Conservation prioritization using GAP data. Conservation Biology 10 (1996) 1332-1342
49. Kintsch J.A., and Urban D.L. Focal species, community representation, and physical proxies as conservation strategies: a case study in the Amphibolite Mountains, North Carolina, USA. Conservation Biology 16 (2002) 936-947
50. Kretzer A.M., Dunham S., Molina R., and Spatafora J.W. Microsatellite markers reveal the below ground distribution of genets in two species of Rhizopogon forming tuberculate ectomycorrhizas on Douglas-fir. New Phytologist 11 (2003) 313-320
51. Kretzer A.M., Luoma D., Molina R., and Spatafora J.W. Taxonomy of the Rhizopogon vinicolor species complex based on analysis of its ITS sequences and microsatelite loci. Mycologia 95 (2003) 480-487
52. Kretzer A.M., Dunham S., Molina R., and Spatafora J.W. Patterns of growth and gene flow in Rhizopogon vinicolor and R. vesiculosus (Boletales, Basidiomycota). Molecular Ecology 14 (2005) 2259-2268
53. Marcot BG, Flather CH, 2007. Species-level strategies for conserving rare or little-known species. In: Raphael MG, Molina R, (eds) Conservation of Rare or Little-known Species: biological, social, and economic considerations. Island, Press, Covelo, CA, pp. 125-164.
54. Marcot B.G., Hohenloe P.A., Morey S., Holmes R., Molina R., Turley M.C., Huff M.H., and Laurence J.A. Characterizing species at risk II: using Bayesian belief networks as decision support tools to determine species conservation categories under the Northwest Forest Plan. Ecology and Society 11 (2006) 12
55. Marcot B.G., and Molina R. Conservation of other species associated with older forest conditions. In: Haynes R.W., Bormann B.T., Lee D.C., and Martin J.R. (Eds). Northwest Forest Plan-the First Ten Years (1994-2003): a synthesis of monitoring and research results. [General technical report PNW-GTR-651] (2006), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR 145-179
56. Marcot BG, Sieg CH, 2007. System-level strategies for conserving rare or little-known species. In: Raphael MG, Molina R, (eds) Conservation of Rare or Little-known Species: Biological, Social, and Economic Considerations. Island, Press, Covelo, CA, 165-235.
57. Max T.A., Schreuder H.T., Hazard J.W., Tipley J., and Alegria J. The Region 6 Vegetation Inventory and Monitoring System. [General technical report PNW-RP-493] (1996), US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland OR
58. Meslow E.C., Holthausen R.S., and Cleaves D.A. Assessment of terrestrial species and ecosystems. Journal of Forestry 4 (1994) 24-27
59. Molina R., Marcot B.G., and Lesher R. Protecting rare, old-growth, forest-associated species under the survey and manage program guidelines of the Northwest Forest Plan. Conservation Biology 20 (2006) 306-318
60. Molina R., McKenzie D., Lesher R., Ford J., Alegria J., and Cutler R. Strategic Survey Framework for the Northwest Forest Plan Survey and Manage Program. [General technical report PNW-GTR-573] (2003), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
61. Molina R., Pilz D., Smith J., Dunham S., Dreisbach T., O'Dell T., and Castellano M. Conservation and management of forest fungi in the Pacific Northwestern United States: an integrated ecosystem approach. In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 19-63
62. In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
63. In: Mueller G.M., Bills G.F., and Foster M.S. (Eds). Biodiversity of Fungi: inventory and monitoring methods (2004), Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA
64. Newton A.C., Davy L.M., Holden E., Silverside A., Watling R., and Ward S.D. Status, distribution and definition of mycologically important grasslands in Scotland. Biological Conservation 111 (2003) 11-23
65. Noon B.R., Murphy D.D., Beissinger S.R., Shaffer M.L., and DellaSala D. Conservation planning for US National Forests: conducting comprehensive biodiversity assessments. Bioscience 53 (2003) 1217-1220
66. Norvell L.L. Phaeocollybia in Western North America 1: the Phaeocollybia kauffmanii complex. Canadian Journal of Botany 78 (2000) 1055-1076
67. Norvell L.L. Phaeocollybia in western North America 3: new species P. phaeogaleroides and P. rifflipes, with notes on the P. festiva complex. Mycotaxon 81 (2002) 95-112
68. Norvell L.L. Phaeocollybia in Western North America 4: two new species with tibiiform cheilocystidia and section Versicolores reconsidered. Mycotaxon 90 (2004) 241-260
69. Norvell L.L., and Redhead S.A. Phaeocollybia in Western North America 2: the vernal P. pleurocystidiata sp. nov. and P. carmanahensis reconsidered. Mycologia 92 (2000) 984-991
70. Norvell L.L., and Redhead S.A. Stropharia albivelata and its basionym Pholiota albivelata. Mycotaxon 76 (2000) 315-320
71. Norvell L.L., and Exeter R.L. Ectomycorrhizal epigeous basidiomycete diversity in Oregon Coast Range Pseudotsuga menziesii forests-preliminary observations. In: Cripps C.L. (Ed). Fungi in Forest Ecosytems: systematics, diversity, and ecology (2004), New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 159-189
72. O'Dell T.E., Ammirati J.F., and Schreiner E.G. Species richness and abundance of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete sporocarps on a moisture gradient in the Tsuga heterophylla zone. Canadian Journal of Botany 77 (1999) 1699-1711
73. O'Dell T.E., Lodge D.J., and Mueller G.M. Approaches to sampling macrofungi. In: Mueller G.M., Bills G.F., and Foster M.S. (Eds). Biodiversity of Fungi: inventory and monitoring methods (2004), Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA 163-168
74. Parmasto E. Fungi as indicators of primeval and old-growth forest deserving protection. In: Moore D., Nauta M.M., Evans S.E., and Rotheroe M. (Eds). Fungal Conservation: issues and solutions (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 81-88
75. Penttilä R., Siitonen J., and Kuusinen M. Polypore diversity in managed and old-growth boreal Picea abies forests in southern Finland. Biological Conservation 117 (2004) 271-283
76. Peterson ET, 1998. Systematics of the genus Otidea in the Pacific Northwest. MSc thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
77. Philippi T. Adaptive cluster sampling for estimation of abundances within local populations of low-abundance plants. Ecology 86 (2005) 1091-1100
78. Pilz D., and Molina R. Managing Forest Ecosystems to Conserve Fungus Diversity and Sustain Wild Mushroom Harvest. [General technical report PNW-GTR-371] (1996), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR
79. Rabinowitz D. Seven forms of rarity. In: Synge H. (Ed). The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation (1981), Wiley, New York, NY 182-204
80. In: Raphael M.G., and Molina R. (Eds). Conservation of Rare or Little-Known Species: biological, social, and economic considerations (2007), Island, Press, Covelo, CA
81. Redberg G.L., Hibbett D.S., Ammirati J.F., and Rodriguez R.J. Phylogeny and genetic diversity of Bridgeoporus nobilissimus inferred using mitochondrial and nuclear rDNA sequences. Mycologia 95 (2003) 836-845
82. Redhead S.A., Norvell L.L., and Danell E. Cantharellus formosus and the Pacific golden chanterelle harvest in western North America. Mycotaxon 65 (1997) 285-322
83. Siitonen J. Forest management, coarse woody debris and saproxylic organisms: Fennoscandian boreal forests as an example. Ecological Bulletins 48 (2001) 11-41
84. Sippola A.L., and Renvall P. Wood-decomposing fungi and seed-tree cutting: a 40 year perspective. Forest Ecology and Management 115 (1999) 183-201
85. Sippola A.L., Similä M., Mönkkönen M., and Jokimäki J. Diversity of polyporus fungi (Polyporaceae) in northern boreal forests: effects of forest site type and logging intensity. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 19 (2004) 152-163
86. Smith J.E., Molina R., Huso M.M.P., and Larsen M.J. Occurrence of Piloderma fallax in young, rotation-age, and old-growth stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Cascade Range of Oregon, USA. Canadian Journal of Botany 78 (2000) 995-1001
87. Smith J.E., Molina R., Huso M.M.P., Luoma D.L., McKay D., Castellano M., Lebel T., and Valachovic Y. Species richness, abundance, and composition of hypogeous and epigeous ectomycorrhizal sporocarps in young, rotation-age, and old-growth stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Cascade Range of Oregon. Canadian Journal of Botany 8 (2002) 186-204
88. Sillett S.C., and McCune B. Survival and growth of cyanolichen transplants in Douglas-fir forest canopies. Bryologist 101 (1998) 20-31
89. Sillett S.C., McCune B., Peck J.E., Rambo T.R., and Rauchty A. Dispersal limitations of epiphytic lichens result in species dependent on old-growth forests. Ecological Applications 10 (2000) 789-799
90. Straatsma G., Ayer F., and Egli S. Species richness, abundance, and phenology of fungal fruit bodies over 21 years in a Swiss forest plot. Mycological Research 105 (2001) 515-523
91. Strittholt J.R., Dellasala D.A., and Jiang H. Status of mature and old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. Conservation Biology 20 (2006) 363-374
92. Stuart C. Agency jobs, unit reorganizations, and budgets. In: Charnley S. (Ed). Northwest Forest Plan: the First 10 Years (1994-2003) Socioeconomic Monitoring Results. [General technical report PNW-649] (2006), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR 53-75
93. Tedersoo L., Kõljalg U., Hallenberg N., and Larsson K.H. Fine scale distribution of ectomycorrhizal fungi and roots across substrate layers including coarse woody debris in a mixed forest. New Phytologist 159 (2003) 153-165
94. Thomas J.W., Franklin J.F., Gordon J., and Johnson K.N. The Northwest Forest Plan: origins, components, implementation experience, and suggestions for change. Conservation Biology 20 (2006) 277-287
95. Thomas J.W., Raphael M.G., Anthony R.G., Forsman E.D., Gunderson A.G., Holthausen R.S., Marcot B.G., Reeves G.H., Sedell J.R., and Solis D.M. Viability Assessments and Management Considerations for Species Associated with Late-Successional and Old-Growth Forests in the Pacific Northwest: the Report of the Scientific Analysis Team (1993), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Portland, OR
96. Thompson W.L. Sampling Rare or Elusive Species: concepts, designs, and techniques for estimating population parameters (2004), Island Press, Washington, DC
97. Trappe J.M., and Castellano M.A. New sequestrate Ascomycota and Basidiomycota covered by the Northwest Forest Plan. Mycotaxon 75 (2000) 153-179
98. Trappe M.J. Habitat and host associations of Craterellus tubaeformis in northwestern Oregon. Mycologia 93 (2004) 498-509
99. USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Forest Service, US Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, and The Environmental Protection Agency. Forest Ecosystem Management: an Ecological, Economic, and Social Assessment. Report of the Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team [FEMAT] (1993), US Government Printing Office 1993-793-071. Regional Ecosystem Office, Portland, OR
100. USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Forest Service, and USDI (US Department of Interior) Bureau of Land Management. Record of Decision on Management of Habitat for Late-successional and Old-growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl (Northwest Forest Plan) (1994), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and US Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR
101. USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Forest Service, and USDI (US Department of Interior) Bureau of Land Management. Record of Decision and Standards and Guidelines for Amendments to the Survey and Manage, Protection Buffer, and other Mitigation Measures Standards and Guidelines (2001), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and US Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR
102. USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Forest Service, and USDI (US Department of Interior) Bureau of Land Management. Record of Decision to Remove or Modify the Survey and Manage Mitigation Measures Standards and Guidelines (2004), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and US Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR
103. USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Forest Service, and USDI (US Department of Interior) Bureau of Land Management. Supplement to the 2004 Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement to Remove or Modify the Survey and Manage Mitigation Measure Standards and Guidelines (2007), US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and US Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR
104. Watling R. Pulling the threads together: habitat diversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 6 (1997) 753-763
105. Watling R. Fungal conservation: some impressions - a personal perspective. In: Dighton J., White J.F., and Oudemans P. (Eds). The Fungal Community: its organization and role in the ecosystem, 3rd edn. (2005), CRC Press, Boca Ratan, FL 881-896
106. Wimberly M.C., Spies T.A., Long C.J., and Whitlock C. Simulating historical variability in the amount of old forests in the Oregon Coast Range. Conservation Biology 14 (2000) 167-180