The pragmatics of feeding the pediatric patient with acute respiratory distress syndrome

Critical Care Nursing Clinics of North America

Volumn 16, Issue 3 SPEC. ISS., 2004, Pages 431-443

  Verger, Judy T ^a,b   Bradshaw, Darla J ^b   Henry, Elizabeth ^c   Roberts, Kathryn E ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL OF NURSING   (United States)

^b Children's H ^*  (United States)

^c CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PHILADELPHIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; FAT; PROTEIN; TRACE ELEMENT;

ARTIFICIAL MILK; BREAST MILK; CALORIC INTAKE; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENTERIC FEEDING; FAT INTAKE; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LENGTH OF STAY; MACRONUTRIENT; NUTRITION; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PROGNOSIS; PROTEIN INTAKE; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 4444381375     PISSN: 08995885     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2004.04.001     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Bulger E., Jurkovich G., Gentillo L., Maier R. Current options for the treatment and management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Trauma. 48:2000;562-572
2. Chughtai T., Hazan C., Tahta S., et al. Successful use of extracorporeal life support in two cases of posttraumatic adult respiratory distress syndrome. J Trauma. 50:2001;1137-1139
3. Simabukuro D., Sawa T., Gropper M. Injury and repair in lungs and airways. Crit Care Med. 31(8 Suppl):2003;S523-S531
4. Ashbaugh D., Bigelow P., Petty T., Levine B. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet. 2:1967;319-323
5. Kinney J.M. Metabolic responses of the critically ill child. Crit Care Med 1995;11:519, 569-86
6. Wesley J. Nutrient metabolism in relation to systemic stress response. Fuhrman B., Zimmerman J. Pediatric critical care. 2nd edition:1998;799-819 Mosby, St. Louis
7. Centers for Disease Control National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey National Center for Health Statistics. Available at: www.cdc.gov/nchs/ about/major/nhanes. Accessed November 2, 2001
8. Bower R. Early enteral administration of a formula (Impact) supplemented with arginine, nucleotides, and fish oil in intensive care unit patients: results of a multicenter prospective, randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med. 2:1995;436-449
9. Curley M.A., Thompson J. The effects of early and repeated prone positioning in pediatric patients with acute lung injury. Chest. 118:2000;156-163
10. Staudinger T., Kofler J., Mullner M., et al. Comparison of prone positioning and continuous rotation of patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 29:2001;51-56
11. Borelli M., Lampati L., Vascotto E., Furnagalli R., Pensenti A. Hemodynamic and gas exchange respnse to inhaled nitric oxide and prone positioning in acute respiratory distress patients. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;1347-1367
12. Gutteridge J., Mitchell J. Redox imbalance in critical illness. Br Med Bull. 55:1999;49-75
13. Arnold J., Anas N., Luckett P., et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure: a multicenter experience. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;3913-3919
14. Moya-Barguin L., Guevara-Melendez-Machuca R., Romero-Escriba G., Toussaint-Martinez H., Carrillo-Lopez H. Mortality prediction and nutritional status influence children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2003;A127
15. Pollack M., Ruttimann R., Wiley J. Nutritional depletion in critically ill children: association with physiologic instability and increased quality of care. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 9:1985;309-313
16. Cerra R.B., Benitez M.R., Blackburn G.L., et al. ACCP consensus statement: applied nutrition in intensive care unit patients: a consensus statement of the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 111:1997;769-778
17. Frankenfield D., Smith J.S., Cooney R. Accelerated nitrogen loss after traumatic injury is attenuated by achievement of energy balance. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 6:1997;324-329
18. Powis M.R., Smith K., Rennie M., Halliday D., Peirro A. Effect of major abdominal operations on energy and protein metabolism in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg. 33:1998;49-53
19. Gallagher-Allred C.R. Malnutrition and clinical outcomes: the case for medical nutrition therapy. J Am Diet Assoc 1996;96:361-6, 369
20. Hendricks K., Duggan C., Gallagher L., et al. Malnutrition in hospitalized pediatric patients. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 149:1995;1118-1122
21. Hendrikse W., Reilly J., Weaver L. Malnutrition in a children's hospital. Clin Nutr. 16:1997;13-18
22. Klein S., Kinney J., Jeejeebhoy K., et al. Nutrition support in clinical practice: review of published data and recommendations for future research directions. Am J Clin Nutr. 66:1997;683-706
23. Beaudry M., Dufour R., Marcoux S. Relationship between infant feeding and infection during the first 6 months of life. J Pediatr. 126:1995;191-197
24. Bristrian B., Blackburn G., Scrimshaw N., Beat S., Nevin S. Cellular immunity in semistarved states in hospitalized adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 28:1975;1148-1155
25. den Broeder E., Lippens R.J., van't Hof M.A., Tolboom J.J., Sengers R.C., van Staveren W.A. Association between the change in nutritional status in response to tube feeding and the occurrence of infections in children with a solid tumor. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 17:2000;567-575
26. Cruse J.M., Lewis R.E., Dilioglou S., Roe D.L., Wallace W.F., Chen R.S. Review of immune function, healing of pressure ulcers, and nutritional status in patients with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 23:2000;129-135
27. Fullana F., Grande L., Fernadez-Llamazares J. Skin prolyhydroxylase activity and wound healing. Eur Surg Res. 25:1993;370-375
28. Langkamp-Henken B., Donovan T.B., Pate L. Increased intestinal permeability following blunt and penetrating head trauma. Ann Surg. 215:1995;660-664
29. Deitch E., Rutay R., Waymach J. Trauma, shock and gut translocation. New Horizons. 4:1996;289-292
30. Chwals W. Overfeeding the critically ill child: fact or fiction. New Horizons. 2:1994;147-155
31. Pi-Sunyer Fx Overnutrition and undernutrition as modifiers of metabolic process in disease states. Am J Clin Nutr. 72(Supp 1):2000;533S-537S
32. Chan S. Nutrition management in the ICU. Chest. 115(Suppl 5):1999;145S-148S
33. Lipsky J., Nelson L.D. Ventilatory response to high caloric loads in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 22:1994;796-802
34. Talpers S., Romberger D., Bunce S., Pingleton S. Nutritionally associated increased carbon dioxide production. Chest. 102:1992;551-555
35. Zaloga G. Early enteral nutritional support improves outcome: hypothesis or fact? Crit Care Clin. 27:1999;259-261
36. Hagaman M., Christian J.W. Nutrition support in acute respiratory failure. Cont Intern Med. 6(7):1994;29-41
37. Whitney J., Heitkemper M. Modifying perfusion, nutrition, and stress to promote wound healing in patients with acute wounds. Heart Lung. 28:1999;123-133
38. Zemel B.S., Riley E., Stallings V. Evaluation of methodology for nutritional assessment in children: anthropometry, body composition, energy expenditure. Annu Rev Nutr. 17:1997;211-235
39. Mascarenhas M.R., Zemel B., Stallings V. Nutritional assessment in pediatrics. Am J Dis Child. 145:1998;105-115
40. Friscancho A. New norms of upper limb fat and muscle areas for assessment of nutritional status. Am J Clin Nutr. 3:1981;2540-2545
41. Corkins M., Lewis P., Crase W., Gupta S., Fitzgerald S. Accuracy of infant admission lengths. Pediatrics. 109:2002;1108-1111
42. Stahl W. Acute phase protein response in injury. Crit Care Med. 15:1987;545-548
43. National Care Consensus Conference Group Measurement of visceral protein status in assessing protein and energy malnutrition: standard of care, prealbumin. Nutrition. 11:1995;169-171
44. American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. The science and practice of nutrition support. A case-based core curriculum. ASPEN; 2001
45. Chwals W.J., Bistrian B.R. Predicted energy expenditure in critically ill children: problems associated with increased variability. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;2655-2656
46. Monk D., Plank L., Franch-Arcas G., et al. Sequential changes in the metabolic response in critically injured patients during the first 25 days after blunt trauma. Ann Surg. 223:1996;395-405
47. Uehara M., Plank L.D., Hill G.L. Components of energy expenditure in patients with severe sepsis and major trauma: a basis for clinical care. Crit Care Med. 27:1999;1295-1302
48. Williams D.T., Harding K. Healing responses of skin and muscle in critical illness. Crit Care Med. 31(Suppl 8):2003;S547-S557
49. Butte N.F. Energy requirements of infants. Eur J Clin Nutr. 50(Suppl 1):1996;S24-S36
50. Davies P.S., Wells J.C., Hinds A., Day J.M., Laidlaw A. Total energy expenditure in 9 month and 12 month infants. Eur J Clin Nutr. 51:1997;249-252
51. Holliday M. Relation of metabolic rate to body weight and organ size. A review. Pediatr Res. 1:1967;185-195
52. Moore R., Najarian M., Konvolinka C. Measured energy expenditure in severe head trauma. J Trauma. 29:1989;1633-1636
53. Shepherd R. Energy expenditure in infants in health and disease. Can J Gastroenterol. 11:1997;101-104
54. Steinhorn D., Green T. Severity of illness correlates with alterations in energy metabolism in the pediatric intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 19:1991;1503-1509
55. Taylor R., Cheeseman P., Preddy V., Baker A., Grimble G. Can energy expenditure be predicated in critically ill children? Pediatr Crit Care Med. 4:2003;176-180
56. White M.S., Shepherd R.W., McEniery J.A. Energy expenditure measurements in ventilated critically ill children: within- and between-day variability. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 23:1999;300-304
57. Winthrop A., Wesson D., Pencharz P., et al. Injury severity, whole body protein turnover, and energy expenditure in pediatric trauma. J Pediatr Surg. 22:1987;534-537
58. Briassoulis G., Venkataraman S., Thompson A.E. Energy expenditure in critically ill children. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;1166-1172
59. Chiolero R.L., Breitenstein E., Thorin D., et al. Effects of propranolol on resting metabolic rate after severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 17:1989;328-334
60. Eccles M., Cole T., Whitehead R. Factors influencing sleeping metabolic rate in infants. Eur J Clin Nutr. 43:1989;485-492
61. McCall M., Jeejeebhoy K., Pencharz P., Moulton R. Effect of neuromuscular blockade on energy expenditure in patients with severe head injury. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 27:2003;27-35
62. McIntyre J., Hull D. Metabolic rate in febrile infants. Arch Disabled Child. 74:1996;206-209
63. Stettler N., Schutz Y., Whitehead R., et al. Effect of malaria and fever on energy metabolism in Gambian children. Pediatr Res. 18:1992;521-524
64. Vernon D., White M. Effect of neuromuscular blockade on oxygen consumption and energy expenditure in sedated, mechanically ventilated children. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;1569-1571
65. National Research Council Food and Nutrition Board: recommended daily allowance. Edition 10:1989;National Academy Press, Washington, DC
66. Institute of Medicine Dietary reference intakes. National Academy Press. Available at: http://www4.nationalacademies.org. Accessed February 2003
67. FAO/WHO/UNU. Energy and protein requirements. Report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU ad hoc expert consultation. Geneva 1985. Technical report series no. 724
68. Karlberg P. Determination of standard energy metabolism (basal metabolism) in normal infants. Acta Paediatr. 41:1952;89
69. Schofield W. Predicting basal metabolic rate, new standards and review of previous work. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 39C(Suppl 1):1985;5-41
70. Talbot F. Basal metabolism standard for children. Am J Dis Child. 55:1938;455-459
71. Coss-Bu J.A., Jefferson L.S., Walding D., David Y., Smith E.O., Klish W.J. Resting energy expenditure in children in a pediatric intensive care unit: comparison of Harris-Benedict and Talbot predictions with indirect calorimetry values. Am J Clin Nutr. 67:1998;74-80
72. Kaplan A.S., Zemel B.S., Neiswender K.M., Stallings V.A. Resting energy expenditure in clincal pediatrics: measured versus prediction equations. J Pediatrics 1995;127:200-5, 273
73. Verhoeven J.J., Hazelzet J.A., van der Voort E., Joosten K.F. Comparison of measured and predicted energy expenditure in mechanically ventilated children. Intensive Care Med. 24:1998;464-468
74. Verger J., Schears G. Nutrition. Curley M., Moloney-Harmon P. Critical care nursing of infants and children. 2001;393-424 WB Saunders, Philadelphia
75. Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Pharmacy handbook and formulary 2003-2004. 2003;CHOP, Philadelphia
76. Joosten K.F., Verhoeven J.J., Hazelzet J.A. Energy expenditure and substrate utilization in mechanically ventilated children. Nutrition. 15:1999;444-448
77. Tilden S., Watkins S., Tong T., Jeevanandam M. Measured energy expenditure in pediatric intensive care patients. Am J Dis Child. 143:1989;490-492
78. Ferrannini E. The theoretical bases of indirect calorimetry: a review. Metabolism. 37:1988;287-295
79. McArthur C. Indirect calorimetry. Respir Care Clin North Am. 3:1997;291-307
80. Bursztein S., Elywn D., Askanazi J. Energy metabolism and indirect calorimetry in critically ill and injured patients. Acute Care. 14-15:1988-89;91-110
81. Groff J., Gropper S. Body composition and energy expenditure. Advanced nutrition and human metabolism. 3rd edition:2000;501-525 Wadsworth/Thomas Learning
82. Daly J., Reynolds J., Sigal R., Shou J., Liberman M. Effect of dietary protein and amino acids on immune function. Crit Care Med. 18:1990;S86-S92
83. Garcia-de Lorenzo A., Zarazaga A., Garcia-Luna P., et al. Clinical evidence for enteral nutritional support with glutamine: a systematic review. Nutrition. 19:2003;805-901
84. Wilmore D.W. The effect of glutamine supplementation in patients following elective surgery and accidental injury. J Nutrition. 131(9 Suppl):2001;2543S-2549S. discussion 2550S-2541S
85. Evoy D., Lieberman M.D., Fahey T.Y. 3rd, Daly J.M. Immunonutrition: the role of arginine. Nutrition. 14:1998;611-617
86. Goodyear-Bruch C., Pierce J. Oxidative stress in critically ill patients. Am J Crit Care. 11:2002;543-553
87. Yoo S., Field C., McBurney M. Glutamine supplementation maintains intramusclular glutamine concentration and normalizes lymphocyte function in infected early weaned pigs. J Nutr. 127:1997;2253-2259
88. Montejo J.C., Zarazaga A., Lopez-Martinez J., et al. Immunonutrition in the intensive care unit. A systematic review and consensus statement. Clin Nutr. 22:2003;221-233
89. Hart D., Wolf S.E., Zhang X.-J., Chinkes D., Buffalo M., Matin S., et al. Efficacy of a high-carbohydrate diet in catabolic illness. Crit Care Clin. 29:2001;1318-1324
90. Groff J., Gropper S. Lipids. Advanced nutrition and human metabolism. 3rd edition:2000;Wadsworth/Thomas Learning
91. Klenoff-Brumberg H., Genen L. High versus low medium chain triglyceride content of formula for promoting growth of premature infants. Cochrane Database System Review. 1:2003;CD002777
92. Innis S., Adamkin D., Hall R. Docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid enhance growth with no adverse effects in preterm infants fed formula. J Pediatr. 140:2002;547-554
93. Simopoulous A.P. Essential fatty acids in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 70(Suppl):1999;560S-569S
94. Connor J. Importance of w-3 fatty acids in health and disease. J Clin Nutr. 71(Suppl 1):2000;1715-1755
95. Grimm H., Tibell A., Norrlind B., Blecher C., Wilker S., et al. Immunoregulation by parenteral lipids: impact of the n-3 to n-6 fatty acid ratio. J Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 18:1994;417-420
96. Zaloga G. Immune-enhancing enteral diets: where's the beef? Crit Care Med. 26:1998;1143-1146
97. Metnitz P., Bartens C., Fischer M., Fridrich P., Steltzer H., Durml W. Antioxidant status in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 25:1999;180-185
98. Deming R., DeBiasse M. Micronutrients in critical illness. Crit Care Clin. 11:1996;651-673
99. O'Leary M., Coakley J. Nutrition and immunonutrition. Br J Anaesthesiol. 77:1996;118-127
100. Ness A. Vitamin C status and respiratory function. Eur J Clin Nutr. 50:1996;573-579
101. Schmidt K. Interaction of antioxidative micronutrients with host defense mechanisms. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 67:1997;307-311
102. Carver J. Dietary nucleotides: effects on the immune and gastrointestinal system. Acta Paediatr. 88:1999;83-88
103. Braga M., Gianotti L., Vignali A., Cestari A., Bisagni P., DiCarlo V. Artificial nutrition after major abdominal surgery: impact of route of administration and composition of the diet. Crit Care Med. 26:1998;24-30
104. Trujillo E., Robinson M., Jacobs D. Feeding critically ill patients: current concepts. Crit Care Nurse. 21:2001;60-69
105. DeBiasse M., Wilmore D. What is optimal nutrition support? New Horizons. 2:1994;122-130
106. Schanler R., Shulman R., Lau C., Smith E., Heitkemper M. Feeding strategies for premature infants: randomized trial of gastrointestinal priming and tube feeding method. Pediatrics. 103:1999;434-439
107. American Academy of Pediatrics Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 100:1997;1035-1039
108. Fuman L., Taylor G., Minich N., Hack M. The effect of maternal milk on neonatal morbidity of very low birth weight infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 157:2003;66-71
109. Hawkes J., Bryan D.-L., James M., et al. Cytokines (Il-IB, IL-6, TNF, TGF-B1 and TGF-B2) and prostaglandin E2 in human milk during the first 3 months post partum. Pediatr Res. 46:1999;194-199
110. Vanderhoof J., Young R. Probiotics in pediatrics. Pediatrics. 5:2002;956-958
111. Meredith J.W., Ditesheim J.A., Zaloga G.P. Visceral protein levels in trauma patients are greater with peptide diet than with intact protein diet. J Trauma 1990;30:825-9, 878
112. Taylor S., Fettes S., Jewkes C., Nelson R. Prospective, randomized, controlled trial to determine the effect of early enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients suffering head injury. Crit Care Clin. 27:1999;2525-2531
113. Beale R., Bryg D., Bihari D. Immunonutrition in the critically ill: a systematic review of clinical outcome. Crit Care Med. 27:1999;2799-2895
114. Daly J., Lieberman M., Goldfine J., Shou J., Weintraub F., et al. Enteral nutrition with supplemental arginine, RNA and omega 3 fatty acids in patients after operation:immunologic, metabolic and clinical outcome. Surgery. 112:1992;56-67
115. Gianotti L. A prospective randomized clinical trial on perioperative feeding with arginine, omega 2 fatty acid and RNA enriched enteral diet. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 23:1999;314-320
116. Jeevandam M., Shahbazian L., Persen S. Proinflammatory cytokine production by mitogen stimulated peripheral blood mononucleus cells (PBMC) in trauma patients fed immune enhancing enteral diets. Nutrition. 15:1999;842-847
117. Atkinson S. A prospective, randomized, double blind controlled clinical trial of enteral immunonutrition in critically ill. Crit Care Med. 26:1998
118. Gadek J. Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Enteral nutrition in ARDS Study Group. Crit Care Med. 27:1999;1409-1420
119. Kemen M., Senkal M., Homann H. Early post-operative enteral nutrition with arginine, w-3 fatty acids and ribonucleic acid supplemented diet versus placebo in cancer patients: an immunologic evaluation of Impact. Crit Care Med. 23:1995;652-659
120. Kudsk K. A randomized trial of isonitrogenous enteral diets after severe trauma. An immune-enhancing diet reduces septic complications. Ann Surg. 224:1996;531-540
121. Moore F., Moore E., Kudok K. Clinical benefits of an immune enhancing diet for postinjury feeding. J Trauma. 27:1997;607-615
122. Chellis M., Sanders S., Webster H., Dean M., Jackson D. Early enteral feeding in the pediatric intensive care unit. J Parenteral Enteral Nutrition. 20:1996;71-73
123. Montejo J.C., Grau T., Acosta J., et al. Multicenter, prospective, randomized, single-blind study comparing the efficacy and gastrointestinal complications of early jejunal feeding with early gastric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 30:2002;796-800
124. de Lucas C., Moreno M., Lopez-Herce J., Ruiz F., Perez-Palencia M., Carrillo A. Transpyloric enteral nutrition reduces the complication rate and cost in the critically ill child. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 30:2000;175-180
125. MacLaren R. Intolerance to intragastric enteral nutrition in critically ill patients: complications and management. Pharmacotherapy. 20:2000;1486-1498
126. Heyland D., Drover J., MacDonald S. Effect of post-pyloric feeding on gastroesophageal regurgitation and pulmonary microaspiration: results of a randomized controlled trial. Critical Care Med. 29:2001;1495-1501
127. Kearns P., Mueller L., Wallace K. The incidence of ventilator associated pneumonia and success in nutrient delivery with gastric versus small intestinal feeding: a randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;1742-1746
128. Chellis M., Sander S., Dean M. Bedside transpyloric feeding tube placement in the pediatric intensive care unit. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 20:1996;80-90
129. Kraft-Jacobs B., Persinger M., Carver J., Moore L., Brilli R. Rapid placement of transpyloric feeding tubes: a comparison of pH assisted and standard insertion techniques in children. Pediatrics. 98:1996;242-248
130. Powers J., Chance R., Bortenschlager L., et al. Bedside placement of small-bowel feeding tubes in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Nurse. 23:2003;16-24
131. Salasidis R., Fleiszer T., Johnston R. Air insufflation technique of enteral tube insertion: a randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 26:1998;1036-1039
132. Spalding H.K., Sullivan K.J., Soremi O., et al. Bedside placement of transpyloric feeding tubes in the pediatric intensive care unit using gastric insufflation. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;2041-2044
133. Cirgin Ellett M., Beckstrand J. Predicting the distance for nasojejunal tube insertion in children. J Soc Pediatr Nurs. 6:2001;123-133
134. Dimand R.J., Veereman-Wauters G., Braner D.A. Bedside placement of pH guided transpyloric small bowel feeding tubes in critically ill infants and small children. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 21:1997;112-114
135. Hallstrom C., Jacobs B. Optimal method of postpyloric tube placement. Crit Care Med. 31:2003;315-316
136. Griffith D.P., McNally A.T., Battey C.H., et al. Intravenous erythromycin facilitates bedside placement of postpyloric feeding tubes in critically ill adults: A double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Crit Care Med. 31:2003;39-44
137. Metheny N., Ciouse R., Reeh L., Wehrle M., et al. pH testing of feeding aspirates to determine placement. Nutr Clin Pract. 9:1994;190-195
138. Ugo P., Mohler P., Wilson G. Bedside postpyloric placement of weighted feeding tubes. NCP. 7:1992;284-287
139. Premji S., Chessell L. Continuous nasogastric milk feeding versus intermittent bolus milk feeding for premature infants less than 1500 grams. Cochrane Database System Review. 1:2003;CD001819
140. Horn D., Chaboyer W. Gastric feeding in critically ill children: a randomized control trial. Am J Crit Care. 12:2003;461-468
141. Metheny N., Aud M., Ignatavicius D.D. Detection of improperly positioned feeding tubes. J Health Care Risk Management. 18:1998;37-48
142. Harrison A.M., Clay B., Grant M.J., et al. Nonradiographic assessment of enteral feeding tube position. Crit Care Med. 25:1997;2055-2059
143. Metheny N., Wehrle M.A., Wiersema L., Clark J. pH, color and feeding tubes. RN. 61:1998;25-27
144. Araujo-Preza C., Mauricio M., Gutierrez F., Maniatis T., Castellano M. Use of capnometry to verify feeding tube placement. Crit Care Med. 30:2002;2255-2259
145. Burns S., Carpeter R., Truwit J. Report on the development of a procedure to prevent placement of feeding tubes into the lungs using end tidal CO2 measurements. Crit Care Med. 9:2002;1-14
146. Kindopp A., Drover J., Heyman D. Capnography confirms correct feeding tube placement in intensive care patients. Can J Anaesthesiol. 48:2001;705-710
147. Gharpure V., Meert K.L., Sarnaik A.P., Metheny N.A. Indicators of postpyloric feeding tube placement in children. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;2962-2966
148. Edes T., Walk B., Austin J. Diarrhea in tube-fed patients: feeding formulas not necessarily the cause. Am J Med 1990;88:44, 91-3
149. Acra S.A., Rolin S.C. Principles and guidelines for parenteral nutrition in children. Pediatr Ann. 28:1999;113-120
150. Fisher A.A., Poole R.L., Machie R., et al. Clinical pathway for pediatric parenteral nutrition. Nutr Clin Pract. 12:1997;76-80
151. Heird W. Amino acids in pediatric and neonate nutrition. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 1:1998;73-78
152. Jones M., Pierro A., Hammond P., et al. Glucose utilization in the surgical newborn receiving TPN. J Pediatr Surg. 8:1993;1121-1125
153. Askanazi J., Rosenbaum S., Hyman A. Respiratory changes induced by the large glucose loads of total parenteral nutrition. JAMA. 243:1980;1444-1447
154. Lai H.-S., Yan W.Y. Effects of medium chain and long chain triacylglycerols in pediatric surgical patients. Nutrition. 16:2000;401-406
155. Gibbons K., Cyr N., Christensen M., Helms R. Techniques for pediatric enteral and parenteral nutrition. ASPEN Nutrition Support Practice Manual. 1998;ASPEN, Silverspring (MD)