Does democratization alter the policy process? Trade policymaking in Brazil

Democratization

Volumn 15, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 991-1017

  Armijo, Leslie Elliott ^a   Kearney, Christine A ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Brazil; Democracy; Governance; Latin America; Policymaking; Trade

Indexed keywords

EID: 44349148756     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: 1743890X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510340802362570     Document Type: Article

References (150)

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22. Ibid.
23. Paulo Sotero and Leslie Elliott Armijo, 'Brazil: To Be or Not to Be a BRIC?', Asian Perspective, Special Issue on the BRICs Countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) in the Global System, forthcoming, Winter 2008.
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25. L. Alan Winters, 'Trade Liberalisation and Economic Performance: An Overview', Economic Journal, Vol. 114 (February 2004), F4-F21.
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27. Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, 'Trade Liberalization and the Political Economy of Protection in Brazil since 1987', Working Paper SITI-08b (Buenos Aires: Inter-American Development Bank, 2004), p. 4.
28. Scott Mainwaring, 'Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy: The Difficult Combination', Comparative Political Studies Vol. 26, No. 2 (1993), pp. 198-228
29. Peter R. Kingstone and Timothy J. Power (eds), Democratic Brazil (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000)
30. and Barry Ames, The Deadlock of Democracy in Brazil (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2001).
31. Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking Away the Ladder: Policies and Institutions for Economic Development in Historical Perspective (London: Anthem Press, 2002).
32. William Tyler, The Brazilian Industrial Economy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983).
33. Werner Baer, The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development, 4th ed. (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995), p. 211.
34. Peter Evans, Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State and Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979)
35. Jeffry A. Frieden, Debt, Development and Democracy: Modern Political Economy and Latin America, 1965-1985 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991)
36. Thomas J. Trebat, Brazil's State-Owned Enterprises, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)
37. and Atul Kohli, State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
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39. Jeffrey Cason, 'Democracy Looks South: Mercosul and the Politics of Brazilian Trade Strategy', in Kingstone and Power (note 17), pp. 204-16.
40. Gardini, 'Government-Business Relations' (note 22)
41. Mario Marconini, 'Trade Policy Making Process in Brazil', Paper presented at London School of Economics Conference on Trade Policy Making, 25 May 2005.
42. Sebastián Sáez, 'Trade Policy Making in Latin America: A Comparative Analysis' (Santiago: ECLAC, January 2005), p. 5.
43. Leslie Elliott Armijo, 'Mass Democracy: The Real Reason that Brazil Ended Inflation?', World Development, Vol. 33, No. 12 (2005), pp. 2013-28.
44. Many economists intimate causal links between the comparatively low share of trade in Brazil's economy and its low growth in recent years. Thomas J. Trebat, 'Whither Brazil? An Economic View', Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Brazilian Studies Association, Nashville, 15 October 2006, slide 2.
45. Marconini (note 23), p. 3.
46. Ibid., pp. 7-8.
47. Maria Regina Soares de Lima and Mônica Hirst, 'Brazil as an Intermediate State and Regional Power: Action, Choice, and Responsibilities', International Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 1 (2006), pp. 21-40.
48. J.F. Hornbeck, 'Brazilian Trade Policy and the United States', CRS Report for Congress, Order Code RL33258 (Washington DC: Congressional Research Service/Library of Congress, 3 February 2006),p. 18.
49. I. M. Destler, American Trade Politics, 4th ed., 'Note on the Underlying Data on the Trade Cases: US Anti-Dumping Cases, 1979-2004' (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 2005), http://bookstore.petersoninsitute.org/book-store/3829.html, consulted 24 January 2007.
50. Hochstetler (note 8), p. 25
51. Newell and Tussie (note 15), p. 53.
52. In practice the 'plebiscite' was closer to a petition drive; those who chose to 'vote' were overwhelmingly opposed to the FTAA.
53. Marcio Botelho, 'The G-20: Aims and Perspectives of a New Trade Alliance', MA thesis, University of Applied Sciences, Berlin, 2005.
54. Baer (note 20), p. 211.
55. All figures from the World Trade Organization's online database, www.wto.org (accessed 26 November 2007).
56. 'Dirigente do PT Critica Mercadante e chama Senado de "antidemocrático"', FolhaOnline, 6 July 2007, http://www.folha.uol.com.br (accessed 9 July 2007).
57. Câmara dos Deputados, República Federativa do Brasil, http://www2.camara.gov.br/proposicoes (accessed 16 December 2006).
58. Ben Ross Schneider, 'Organizing Interests and Coalitions in the Politics of Market Reform in Latin America', World Politics, Vol. 56 (April 2004)
59. and 'Business Politics and Policy Making in Contemporary Latin America', Paper prepared for Workshop on State Reform, Public Policies, and Policymaking Processes, Inter-American Development Bank, Washington DC, 28 February-2 March 2005.
60. Marconini (note 23).
61. In the early 1990s, multinationals earned 26 per cent of all revenues of Brazil's 100 largest firms, but by decade's end their share had risen to 40 per cent. Eli Diniz and Renato R. Boschi, 'The Business Class and Development Strategies', Translation in 2005 of Portuguese original appearing in Revista Brasileira de Ciencias Sociais (São Paulo) Vol. 18, No. 52 (2003), p. 5.
62. Marques, Joseph, 'Brazilian Business Elites and Foreign Policy', Presentation at the BRASA Congress, Nashville, Tennessee, 13-16 October 2006.
63. Pedro da Motta Veiga, 'Trade Policy-Making in Brazil: Transition Paths', in Inter-American Development Bank, Institute for the Integration of Latin America and the Caribbean (IDB/INTAL), The Trade Policy-Making Process, Level One of the Two Level Game: Country Studies in the Western Hemisphere (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, March 2002), p. 15.
64. Marconini (note 23), p. 9
65. Richard L. Harris, 'Popular Resistance to Globalization and Neoliberalism in Latin America', in Richard L. Harris (ed.), Globalization and Development in Latin America. (Whitby, Ontario: De Sitter Publications, 2005), p. 319.
66. Helen V. Milner and Keiko Kubota, 'Why the Move to Free Trade? Democracy and Trade Policy in the Developing Countries', International Organization, Vol. 59 (Winter 2005), pp. 115-19.
67. Marcus Kurtz, 'The Dilemmas of Democracy in the Open Economy: Lessons from Latin America,' World Politics, Vol. 56 (January 2004), p. 264.
68. As in Andy Baker, 'Why is Trade Reform so Popular in Latin America? A Consumption-Based Theory of Trade Policy Preferences', World Politics Vol. 55 (April 2003), pp. 423-55.
69. Some sources have the US surpassing Brazil in ethanol production in 2005. See for example Garten Rothkopf, A Blueprint for Green Energy in the Americas: Strategic Analysis of Opportunities for Brazil and the Hemisphere (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 2006), p. 3.
70. João Martins-Filho, Heloisa L. Burnquist and Carlos E. F. Vian, 'Bioenergy and the Rise of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol in Brazil', Choices, Vol. 21, No. 2 (2006), p. 92
71. David Orden, 'Effects of a Free Trade Area of the Americas on Sugar Markets', in Marcos S. Jank (ed.), Agricultural Trade Liberalization: Politics and Implications for Latin America (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank, 2004).
72. 'The Economy of Heat', The Economist, 12 April 2007, at www.economist.com.
73. Ibid.
74. Ethanol is ethyl alcohol (in Portuguese 'álcool').
75. Barbara Nunberg, 'State Intervention in the Sugar Sector in Brazil: A Study on the Institute of Sugar and Alcohol', PhD dissertation, Stanford University, CA, United States, 1979.
76. Michael Barzelay, The Politicized Market Economy: Alcohol in Brazil's Energy Strategy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986).
77. By the mid-1980s, three quarters of Brazilian-made cars could run on ethanol (New York Times, 10 April 2006).
78. Abreu (note 16), p. 32. In 2004, the average applied MFN tariff for sugar was 13.8 per cent.
79. See the World Trade Organization (WTO), 'Trade Policy Review (Brazil): Report by the Secretariat', Document WT/TPR/S/140 (1 November 2004), p. 44. Available at http://www.wto.org.
80. João Martins-Filho, Heloisa L. Burnquist and Carlos E.F. Vian, 'Bioenergy and the Rise of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol in Brazil', Choices, Vol. 21, No. 2 (2006), pp. 91-6.
81. WTO (note 55).
82. Martins-Filho, Burnquist and Vian (note 49).
83. Carlos Eduardo Freitas Vian, 'Complexo Agroindustrial Canavieiro - Análise do Processo de Evolução e Consolidação Tecnológica de 1930 a 2000', Série Pesquisa no. P-58 (Piracicaba, SP: Departamento de Economia, Administração e Sociologia, Esalq/USP, 2006).
84. WTO (note 55).
85. Martines-Filho, Burnquist, and Vian (note 49), p. 95.
86. See also: Abreu (note 16), p. 21
87. Antônio Salazar Pessôa Brandão, 'The Sugar/Ethanol Complex in Brazil: Development and Future', Draft paper prepared for public conference on 'Global Sugar Markets, Policies and Reform Options', International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 1 June 2007, p. 11
88. and Donald F. Larson and Brent Borrell, 'Sugar Policy and Reform', Policy Research Working Paper No. 2602, World Bank Development Research Group, May 2001, pp. 20-2.
89. Pedro da Motta Veiga, 'Regional and Transregional Dimensions of Brazilian Trade Policy', in Vinod K. Aggarwal (ed.), The Strategic Dynamics of Latin American Trade (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 175-88
90. Andy Klom, 'Mercosur and Brazil: A European Perspective', International Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 2 (2003), pp. 351-68
91. Remy Jurenas, 'Sugar Policy Issues', CRS Report for Congress (IB95117), 23 March 2005.
92. 'Ethanol Puts Power in Brazil's Tank', Financial Times, 16 May 2006, p. 8.
93. Câmara dos Deputados, República Federativa do Brasil, http://www2.camara.gov.br/proposicoes (accessed 16 December 2006).
94. Ibid.
95. CAPADR, Relatório de Atividades (Brasília: CAPADR, 15 February 2004).
96. Paulo F. Azevedo, Fabio R. Chaddad and Elizabeth M. M. Q. Farina, 'The Free Trade Area of the Americas and the Food Industry in Brazil and the United States', in Jank (note 49)
97. Fulvio de Barros Pinheiro Machado, 'Brasil, A Doce Terra', http://www.jornalcana.com.br/conteudo/HistoriadoSetor.asp (accessed 27 February 2006)
98. and Abreu (note 16).
99. Jerry Hagstrom, 'Sugar Industry Wary of Calls to Get Into Ethanol Production', Congress Daily, 12 August 2005.
100. 'A Tank Full of Sugar', The Economist, 24 September 2005, p. 79.
101. Abreu (note 16).
102. Sybil Rhodes, 'The Politics of Agricultural Biotechnology in Brazil, 1995-2005: Interests and Institutions as Explanations for Unexpected Policy Choices', Paper prepared for the Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 2006.
103. Rogério Simões, 'Chávez é parceiro, não um perigo, diz Lula', Folha Online, 4 June 2007, http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/bbc/ult272u301839.shtml (accessed 12 July 2007)
104. 'Chavez Seeks To Defuse Brazil Rift On Ethanol', Financial Times, 18 April 2001 (USA Edition 1), p. 6.
105. David Fleischer, Brazil Focus, Weekly Report, 30 June-6 July 2007, p. 6.
106. Brandão (note 61)
107. Martines-Filho, Burnquist and Vian (note 49)
108. and Abreu (note 16).
109. For opposing views, compare Susan C. Stokes, Mandates and Democracy: Neoliberalism by Surprise in Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)
110. and Leslie Elliott Armijo and Philippe Faucher, 'We Have a Consensus: Explaining Political Support for Market Reforms in Latin America', Latin American Politics and Society, Vol. 44, No. 2 (2002), pp. 1-40.
111. Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 117-19 and passim.
112. Ibid., p. 117.
113. The market reserve applied only to the manufacture of small or 'mini' computers.
114. Evans (note 76), pp. 118-19.
115. Ibid., pp. 120-4
116. Jason Dedrick, Kenneth L. Kraemer, Juan J. Palacios, Paulo Bastos Tigre and Antonio José Junqueira Botelho, 'Economic Liberalization and the Computer Industry: Comparing Outcomes in Brazil and Mexico,' World Development, Vol. 29, No. 7 (2001), p. 1205.
117. Ivan da Costa Marques, 'Cloning Computers: From Rights of Possession to Rights of Creation', Science as Culture, Vol. 14, No. 2 (2005), pp. 139-60.
118. Maria Ines Bastos, 'How International Sanctions Worked: Domestic and Foreign Political Constraints on Brazilian Informatics Policy', Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 30, No. 2 (1994), pp. 380-1.
119. Evans (note 76), p. 153.
120. Dedrick et al. (note 80), pp. 1204, 1207-11.
121. 'Brazil Designs Incentives to Revive Economy', Financial Times, 8 March 2004, p. 9.
122. Paulo Bastos Tigre and Antonio José Junqueira Botelho, 'Brazil Meets the Global Challenge: IT Policy in a Postliberalization Environment', The Information Society, 17 (2001), pp. 91-103.
123. 'Regulamentaçåo da Lei de Informática em Fase Final', Journal da Ciência, 3 October 2006, available at: http://www.sbc.org.br/index.php?language=1&subject= 107&content=news&id=1677.
124. 'Câmara vota MP dos Transgênicos, Lei de Informática e Limpa a Pauta', Folha Online 9 December 2004, available at: http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/brasil/ult96u66181.shtml;
125. 'Lei de Informá-tica tem Impasse enfim Resolvido', Gazeta Mercantil Online 27 September 2006, available at: http://indexet.gazeteamercantil.com.br/arquivo/2006/09/27/324/ Lei-de-Informática-tem-impasseenfim-resolvido.html.
126. Wendy Hunter and Timothy J. Power, 'Rewarding Lula: Executive Power, Social Policy, and the Brazilian Elections of 2006', Latin American Politics and Society, Vol. 49, No. 1 (2006), pp. 1-30.
127. Tina Rosenberg, 'Look at Brazil', New York Times (Sunday Magazine), 28 January 2001
128. Pascual Ortells, 'Brazil: A Model Response to AIDS', Interhemispheric Resource Center (IRC), April 2003, http://americas.irc-online.org/pdf/ reports/0304aids.pdf (accessed 24 January 2006)
129. Shawn Smallman, The AIDS Pandemic in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
130. Ortells (note 90).
131. Smallman (note 90).
132. Rosenberg (note 90)
133. Smallman (note 90). Brazil's domestic patent law also dates from 1996.
134. Susan K. Sell, Private Power, Public Law: The Globalization of Intellectual Property Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 116-77.
135. Ibid., p. 151 ff.
136. Smallman (note 90).
137. Jillian Clare Cohen and Kristina M. Lybecker, 'AIDS Policy and Pharmaceutical Patents: Brazil's Strategy to Safeguard Public Health', Unpublished Paper, November 2002.
138. Andrew Downie, 'Brazil pushes for cheaper drugs and free AIDS diagnosis', Christian Science Monitor, 23 August 2005, available at: www.csmonitor.com
139. Council on Hemispheric Affairs (COHA), Report on AIDS in Latin America, 10 March 2005
140. Vanessa Bradford Kerry and Kelley Lee, 'TRIPS, the Doha Declaration and Paragraph 6 Decision: What Are the Remaining Steps for Protecting Access to Medicines?', Globalization and Health, Vol. 3, No. 3 (24 May 2007), www.globalizationandhealth.com.
141. See WTO statistic database, http://stat.wto.org, consulted October 2006.
142. This is certainly the claim made by Brazil's anti-AIDs activists.
143. George Tsebelis, Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work (New York: Russell Sage, 2002).
144. Maria Rita Loureiro, 'Instituições, Política, e Ajuste Fiscal: O Brasil em Perspectiva Comparada', Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, Vol. 16, No. 47 (October 2001), pp. 75-96
145. Vicente Palermo, 'Como se Governa o Brasil? O Debate Sobre Instituiĉões e Gestão de Governo', Dados Vol. 43, No. 3 (2000), pp. 521-57.
146. Sotero and Armijo (note 13).
147. See Warner (note 14),
148. Winters (note 14),
149. Chang (note 18).
150. On the virtues of democratic incrementalism, see Charles Lindblom, The Intelligence of Democracy: Decision Making through Mutual Adjustment (New York: Free Press, 1965).