Macrofungus communities correlate with moisture and nitrogen abundance in two old-growth conifer forests, Olympic National Park, Washington, USA

Canadian Journal of Botany

Volumn 82, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 781-800

  Trudell, Steven A ^a   Edmonds, Robert L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

Critical nitrogen loads; Ectomycorrhizal fungi; Macrofungi; Macrofungus communities; Nitrogen; Old growth conifer forests

Indexed keywords

CHARACTERIZATION; FORESTRY; MOISTURE; NITROGEN; WATER;

EPIGEOUS MACROFUNGUS COMMUNITIES; MACROFUNGI; SPOROCARPS;

FUNGI;

COMMUNITY COMPOSITION; ECTOMYCORRHIZA; FUNGUS; MOISTURE; NITROGEN; OLD-GROWTH FOREST; SPECIES RICHNESS;

FORESTRY; FUNGI; MOISTURE; NITROGEN; WATER;

NORTH AMERICA; OLYMPIC NATIONAL PARK; UNITED STATES; WASHINGTON [UNITED STATES];

AMANITA; AMANITA PHALLOIDES; BASIDIOMYCOTA; BOLETUS; CERVIDAE; CONIFEROPHYTA; CORTINARIUS; FUNGI; HYDNELLUM; INOCYBE; PHAEOCOLLYBIA; RUSSULA; SARCODON; SUILLUS; TRICHOLOMA;

EID: 4344596014     PISSN: 00084026     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/b04-057     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Aber, J., McDowell, W., Nadelhoffer, K., Magill, A., Berntson, G., Kamakea, M., McNulty, S., Currie, W., Rustad, L., and Fernandez, I. 1998. Nitrogen saturation in temperate forest ecosystems: hypotheses revisited. Bioscience, 48: 921-934.
2. Aerts, R., and Chapin, F.S., III. 2000. The mineral nutrition of wild plants revisited: a re-evaluation of processes and patterns. Adv. Ecol. Res. 30: 1-67.
3. Agerer, R. 1986-1998. Colour atlas of ectomycorrhizae. Einhorn-Verlag, Schwäbisch-Gmünd.
4. Agerer, R. 2001. Exploration types of ectomycorrhizae: a proposal to classify ectomycorrhizal mycelial systems according to their patterns of differentiation and putative ecological importance. Mycorrhiza, 11: 107-114.
5. Agerer, R., Taylor, A.F.S., and Treu, R. 1998. Effects of acid irrigation and liming on the production of fruit bodies by ectomycorrhizal fungi. Plant Soil, 199: 83-89.
6. Alexander, I., and Watling, R. 1987. Macrofungi of Sitka spruce in Scotland. Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh Sect. B, 93: 107-115.
7. Andersen, C.P., and Rygiewicz, P.T. 1991. Stress interactions and mycorrhizal plant response: understanding carbon allocation priorities. Environ. Pollut. 73: 217-244.
8. Arnebrant, K. 1994. Nitrogen amendments reduce the growth of extramatrical ectomycorrhizal mycelium. Mycorrhiza, 5: 7-15.
9. Arnolds, E. 1991. Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe. Agric. Ecosyst. & Environ. 35: 209-244.
10. Arora, D. 1986. Mushrooms demystified, 2nd ed. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California.
11. Avis, P.G., McLaughlin, D.J., Dentinger, B.C., and Reich, P.B. 2003. Long-term increase in nitrogen supply alters above- and below-ground ectomycorrhizal communities and increases the abundance of Russula spp. in a temperate oak savanna. New Phytol. 160: 239-253.
12. Bauer, G.A., Persson, H., Persson, T., Mund, M., Hein, M., Kummetz, E., Matteucci, G., van Oene, H., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., and Schulze, E.-D. 2000. Linking plant nutrition and ecosystem processes. In Carbon and nitrogen cycling in European forest ecosystems. Ecol. Stud. 142: 63-98.
13. Bills, G.F., Holtzman, G.I., and Miller, O.K., Jr. 1986. Comparison of ectomycorrhizal-basidiomycete communities in red spruce versus northern hardwood forests of West Virginia. Can. J. Bot. 64: 760-768.
14. Björkman, E. 1942. Über die bedingungen der mykorrhizabildung bei kiefer und flehte. Symb. Bot. Ups. 6: 1-190. [In German.]
15. Bohus, G. 1984. Studies on the pH requirement of soil-inhabiting mushrooms: the R-spectra of mushroom assemblages in deciduous forest communities. Acta Bot. Hung. 30: 155-171.
16. Bradbury, S.M., Danielson, R.M., and Visser, S. 1998. Ectomycorrhizas of regenerating stands of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). Can. J. Bot. 76: 218-227.
17. Brandrud, T.E., and Timmermann, V. 1998. Ectomycorrhizal fungi in the NITREX site at Gårdsjön, Sweden: below and above-ground responses to experimentally changed nitrogen inputs 1990-1995. For. Ecol. Manage. 101: 207-214.
18. Breitenbach, J., and Kränzlin, F. 1981-2000. Fungi of Switzerland. Edition Mykologia, Lucerne.
19. Brunner, I., Brunner, F., and Laursen, G.A. 1992. Characterization and comparison of macrofungal communities in an Alnus tenuifolia and an Alnus crispa forest in Alaska. Can. J. Bot. 70: 1247-1258.
20. Bujakiewicz, A. 1992. Macrofungi on soil in deciduous forests. In Fungi in vegetation science. Edited by W. Winteroff. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 49-78.
21. Cibula, W.G., and Ovrebo, C.L. 1988. Mycosociological studies of mycorrhizal fungi in two loblolly pine plots in Mississippi and some relationships with remote sensing. In Remote sensing for resource inventory, planning, and monitoring. Proceedings of the Second Forest Service Remote Sensing Application Conference, Slidell, Louisiana, 11-15 April 1988. Edited by J.D. Greer. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Falls Church, Va. pp. 268-307.
22. Deans, J.D., Leith, I.D., Sheppard, L.J., Cape, J.N., Fowler, D., Murray, M.D., and Mason, P.A. 1990. The influence of acid mists on growth, dry matter partitioning, nutrient concentrations, and mycorrhizal fruiting bodies in red spruce seedlings. New Phytol. 115: 459-464.
23. den Boer, W.M.J., and Bastiaans, H. 1984. Verzuring door atmosferische depositie: vegetatie. Ministerie van landbouw en visserij, Ministerie VROM, The Hague. [In Dutch.]
24. Dighton, J., and Skeffington, R.A. 1987. Effects of artificial acid precipitation on the mycorrhizas of Scots pine seedlings. New Phytol. 107: 191-202.
25. Dix, N.J., and Webster, J. 1995. Fungal ecology. Chapman & Hall, London.
26. Driscoll, C.T., Whitall, D., Aber, J., Boyer, E., Castro, M., Cronan, C., Goodale, C.L., Groffman, P., Hopkinson, C., Lambert, K., Lawrence, G., and Ollinger, S. 2003. Nitrogen pollution in the northeastern United States: sources, effects, and management options. Bioscience, 53: 357-374.
27. Edmonds, R.L., and Lebo, D.S. 1998. Diversity, production, and nutrient dynamics of fungal sporocarps on logs in an old-growth temperate rain forest, Olympic National Park, Washington. Can. J. For. Res. 28: 665-673.
28. Edmonds, R.L., Blew, R.D., Marra, J.L., Blew, J., Barg, A.K., Murray, G., and Thomas, T.B. 1998. Vegetation patterns, hydrology, and water chemistry in small watersheds in the Hoh River Valley, Olympic National Park. USDI Natl. Park Serv. Sci. Monogr. NPSD/NRUSGS/NRSM-98/02.
29. Erland, S., and Taylor, A.F.S. 2002. Diversity of ecto-mycorrhizal fungal communities in relation to the abiotic environment. In Mycorrhizal ecology. Edited by M.G.A. van der Heijden and I.R. Sanders. Springer, Berlin. pp. 163-200.
30. Fellner, R. 1993. Air pollution and mycorrhizal fungi in central Europe. In Fungi of Europe: investigation, recording, and conservation. Edited by D.N. Pegler, L. Boddy, B. Ing, and P.M. Kirk. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. pp. 239-250.
31. Fenn, M.E., Baron, J.S., Allen, E.B., Rueth, H.M., Nydick, K.R., Geiser, L., Bowman, W.D., Sickman, J.O., Meixner, T., Johnson, D.W., and Neitlich, P. 2003. Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition in the western United States. Bioscience, 53: 404-420.
32. Ferris, R., Peace, A.J., and Newton, A.C. 2000. Macrofungal communities of lowland Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karsten.) plantations in England: relationships with site factors and stand structure. For. Ecol. Manage. 131: 255-267.
33. 15N abundance and the availability of soil nitrogen on the Walker Branch watershed. Ecology, 74: 2098-2113.
34. Giesler, R., Högberg, M., and Högberg, P. 1998. Soil chemistry and plants in Fennoscandian boreal forest as exemplified by a local gradient. Ecology, 79: 119-137.
35. Gilbertson, R.L., and Ryvarden, L. 1986. North American polypores. Fungiflora, Oslo.
36. Ginns, J. 1997. The taxonomy and distribution of rare or uncommon species of Albatrellus in western North America. Can. J. Bot. 75: 261-273.
37. Grand, L.F. 1968. Conifer associates and mycorrhizal syntheses of some Pacific Northwest Suillus species. For. Sci. 14: 304-312.
38. Guillite, O., Fraiture, A., and Marchal, A. 1989. Effect of fertilization on mycorrhizal fungi communities in two Belgian forests. Agric. Ecosyst. & Environ. 28: 155-159.
39. Hall, D., and Stuntz, D.E. 1972. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area III. Brown-spored genus: Hydnellum. Mycologia, 64: 560-590.
40. Hansen, L., and Knudsen, H. (Editors). 1992. Nordic macromycetes, vol. 2. Nordsvamp, Copenhagen.
41. Hansen, P.A., and Tyler, G. 1992. Statistical evaluation of tree species affinity and soil preferences of the macrofungal flora in south Swedish beech, oak, and hornbeam forests. Crypt. Bot. 2: 355-361.
42. Henderson, J.A., Peter, D.H., Lesher, R.D., and Shaw, D.C. 1989. Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region: R6 ECOL Technical Paper 001-88.
43. Hering, T.F. 1966. The terricolous higher fungi of four Lake District woodlands. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 49: 369-383.
44. Hintikka, V. 1988. On the macromycete flora in oligotrophic pine forests of different ages in south Finland. Acta Bot. Fenn. 136: 89-94.
45. Hitchcock, C.L., and Cronquist, A. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest: an illustrated manual. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
46. Hobbie, E.A., and Colpaert, J.V. 2003. Nitrogen availability and colonization by mycorrhizal fungi correlate with nitrogen isotope patterns in plants. New Phytol. 157: 115-126.
47. 15N and nitrogen concentrations may indicate plant-mycorrhizal interactions. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 122: 273-283.
48. Högberg, M.N., and Högberg, P. 2002. Extramatrical ectomycorrhizal mycelium contributes one-third of microbial biomass and produces, together with associated roots, half the dissolved organic carbon in a forest soil. New Phytol. 154: 791-795.
49. 15N abundance of surface soils, roots and mycorrhizas in profiles of European forest soils. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 108: 207-214.
50. Högberg, P., Nordgren, A., Buchmann, N., Taylor, A.F.S., Ekblad, A., Högberg, M., Nyberg, G., Ottosson-Löfvenius, M., and Read, D.J. 2001. Large-scale forest girdling shows that current photosynthesis drives soil respiration. Nature (Lond.), 411: 789-792.
51. Holland, E.A., Dentener, F.J., Braswell, B.H., and Sulzman, J.M. 1999. Contemporary and pre-industrial global reactive nitrogen budgets. Biogeochemistry, 46: 7-43.
52. Jaffe, D., Anderson, T., Covert, D., Kotchenruther, R., Trost, B., Danielson, J., Simpson, W., Berntsen, T., Karlsdottir, S., Blake, D., Harris, J., Carmichael, G., and Uno, I. 1999. Transport of Asian air pollution to North America. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26: 711-714.
53. Jaffe, D., McKendry, I., Anderson, T., and Price, H. 2003. Six "new" episodes of trans-Pacific transport of air pollutants. Atmos. Environ. 37: 391-404.
54. Jansen, A.E. 1984. Vegetation and macrofungi of acid oakwoods in the north-east of the Netherlands. Agricultural Research Reports, Agricultural University, Biological Station, Wijster, Pudoc Wageningen.
55. Jonsson, L., Dahlberg, A., and Brandrud, T.-E. 2000. Spatiotemporal distribution of an ectomycorrhizal community in an oligotrophic Swedish Picea abies forest subjected to experimental nitrogen addition: above- and below-ground views. For. Ecol. Manage. 132: 143-156.
56. Kane, E.S., Pregitzer, K.S., and Burton, A.J. 2003. Soil respiration along environmental gradients in Olympic National Park. Ecosystems, 6: 326-335.
57. Keeney, D.R., and Nelson, D.W. 1982. Nitrogen - inorganic forms. In Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties. 2nd ed. Edited by A.L. Page, R.H. Miller, and D.R. Keeney. Agronomy 9(2): 643-699.
58. Kropp, B.R., and Trappe, J.M. 1982. Ectomycorrhizal fungi of Tsuga heterophylla. Mycologia, 74: 479-488.
59. Lamhamedi, M.S., Godbout, C., and Fortin, J.A. 1994. Dependence of Laccaria bicolor basidiome development on current photosynthesis of Pinus strobus seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 1797-1804.
60. Lange, M. 1993. Macromycetes under twelve tree species in ten plantations on various soil types in Denmark. Opera Bot. 120: 5-53.
61. Last, F.T., Pelham, J., Mason, P.A., and Ingleby, K. 1979. Influence of leaves on sporophore production by fungi forming sheathing mycorrhizas with Betula species. Nature (Lond.), 280: 168-169.
62. Lilleskov, E.A., and Bruns, T.D. 2001. Nitrogen and ectomycorrhizal fungal communities: what we know, what we need to know. New Phytol. 149: 154-158.
63. Lilleskov, E.A., Fahey, T.J., and Lovett, G.M. 2001. Ectomycorrhizal fungal aboveground community change over an atmospheric nitrogen deposition gradient. Ecol. Appl. 11: 397-410.
64. Lilleskov, E.A., Fahey, T.J., Horton, T.R., and Lovett, G.M. 2002. Belowground ectomycorrhizal fungal community change over a nitrogen deposition gradient in Alaska. Ecology, 83: 104-115.
65. Maas Geesteranus, R.A. 1975. The terrestrial hydnums of Europe. North Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
66. Maser, C., Anderson, R.G., Cromack, K., Jr., Williams, J.T., and Martin, R.E. 1979. Dead and down woody material. In Wildlife habitat in managed forests: the Blue Mountains of Oregon. Edited by J.W. Thomas. USDA Agric. Handb. 553. pp. 78-95.
67. Mason, P.A., Last, F.T., Pelham, J., and Ingleby, K. 1982. Ecology of some fungi associated with an ageing stand of birches (Betula pendula and B. pubescens). For. Ecol. Manage. 4: 19-39.
68. Mason, P.A., Wilson, J., and Last, F.T. 1983. The concept of succession in relation to the spread of sheathing mycorrhizal fungi on inoculated tree seedlings growing in unsterile soils. Plant Soil, 71: 247-256.
69. McClave, J.T., and Dietrich, F.H., II. 1994. Statistics. 6th ed. MacMillan Publishing Company, New York.
70. Mehus, H. 1986. Fruit body production of macrofungi in some north Norwegian forest types. Nord. J. Bot. 6: 679-702.
71. Miller, O.K., Jr. 1982. Taxonomy of ecto- and ectendomycorrhizal fungi. In Methods and principles of mycorrhizal research. Edited by N.C. Schenck. American Phytopathological Society, APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. pp. 91-101.
72. Moffat, A.S. 1998. Global nitrogen overload problem grows critical. Science (Washington, D.C.), 279: 988-989.
73. Molina, R., and Trappe, J.M. 1982. Patterns of ectomycorrhizal host specificity and potential among Pacific Northwest conifers and fungi. For. Sci. 28: 423-458.
74. Molina, R., and Palmer, J.G. 1982. Isolation, maintenance, and pure culture manipulation of ectomycorrhizal fungi. In Methods and principles of mycorrhizal research. Edited by N.C. Schenck. American Phytopathological Society, APS Press, St. Paul, Minn. pp. 115-129.
75. Molina, R., Massicotte, H., and Trappe, J.M. 1992. Specificity phenomena in mycorrhizal symbiosis: community-ecological consequences and practical implications. In Mycorrhizal functioning: an integrative plant-fungal process. Edited by M.F. Allen. Chapman & Hall, New York. pp. 357-423.
76. Moser, M. 1983. Keys to agarics and boleti (Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Russulales). Roger Phillips, London.
77. Nantel, P., and Neumann, P. 1992. Ecology of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete communities on a local vegetation gradient. Ecology, 73: 99-117.
78. National Atmospheric Deposition Program. 2004. National trend network maps [online]. Available from http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu [cited 13 February 2004].
79. Nilsson, L.O., and Wiklund, K. 1992. Influence of nutrient and water stress on Norway spruce production in south Sweden: the role of air pollutants. Plant Soil, 147: 251-265.
80. O'Dell, T.E., Ammirati, J.F., and Schreiner, E.G. 1999. Species richness and abundance of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete sporocarps on a moisture gradient in the Tsuga heterophylla zone. Can. J. Bot. 77: 1699-1711.
81. Ogawa, M. 1977. Ecology of higher fungi in Tsuga diversifolia and Betula ermani - Abies mariesii forests of subalpine zone. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jpn. 18: 1-19.
82. Ohenoja, E. 1978. Mushrooms and mushroom yields in fertilized forests. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 15: 38-46.
83. Ohenoja, E. 1988a. Behaviour of mycorrhizal fungi in fertilized forests. Karstenia, 28: 27-30.
84. Ohenoja, E. 1988b. Effect of forest management procedures on fungal fruit body production in Finland. Acta Bot. Fenn. 136: 81-84.
85. Ohtonen, R. 1986. The effect of forest fertilization on the nitrogen content of the fruit-bodies of two mycorrhizal fungi, Lactarius rufus and Suillus variegatus. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 23: 189-203.
86. Palmer, J.G., Miller, O.K., Jr., and Gruhn, C. 1994. Fruiting of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes on unburned and prescribed burned hard-pine/hardwood plots after drought-breaking rainfalls on the Allegheny Mountains of southwestern Virginia. Mycorrhiza, 4: 93-104.
87. Persson, T., van Oene, H., Harrison, A.F., Karlsson, P.S., Bauer, G.A., Cerny, J., Coûteaux, M.-M., Dambrine, E., Högberg, P., Kjøller, A., Matteucci, G., Rudebeck, A., Schulze, E.-D., and Paces, T. 2000. Experimental sites in the NIPHYS/CANIF project. In Carbon and nitrogen cycling in European forest ecosystems. Ecol. Stud. 142: 14-46.
88. Peter, M., Ayer, F., and Egli, S. 2001. Nitrogen addition in a Norway spruce stand altered macromycete sporocarp production and below-ground ectomycorrhizal species composition. New Phytol. 149: 311-325.
89. Redhead, S.A. 1988. Notes on the genus Xeromphalina (Agaricales, Xerulaceae) in Canada: biogeography, nomenclature, taxonomy. Can. J. Bot. 66: 478-507.
90. Rühling, Å., and Tyler, G. 1990. Soil factors influencing the distribution of macrofungi in oak forests of southern Sweden. Holarct. Ecol. 13: 11-18.
91. Rühling, Å., and Tyler, G. 1991. Effects of simulated nitrogen deposition to the forest floor on the macrofungal flora of a beech forest. Ambio, 20: 261-263.
92. Rühling, Å., Bååth, E., Nordgren, A., and Söderström, B. 1984. Fungi in metal-contaminated soil near the Gusum Brass Mill, Sweden. Ambio, 13: 34-36.
93. Salo, K. 1979. Mushrooms and mushroom yield on transitional peatlands in central Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 16: 181-192.
94. Salo, K. 1993. The composition and structure of macrofungus communities in boreal upland type forests and peatlands in North Karelia, Finland. Karstenia, 33: 61-99.
95. Schmit, J.P., Murphy, J.F., and Mueller, G.M. 1999. Macrofungal diversity of a temperate oak forest: a test of species richness estimators. Can. J. Bot. 77: 1014-1027.
96. Singer, R. 1986. The Agaricales in modern taxonomy. 4th ed. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein.
97. Skinner, M.F., Zabowski, D., Harrison, R., Lowe, A., and Xue, D. 2001. Measuring the cation exchange capacity of forest soils. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 32: 1751-1764.
98. Smith, A.H., and Hesler, L.R. 1968. The North American species of Pholiota. Hafner Publishing Company, New York.
99. Smith, J.E., Molina, R., Huso, M.M.P., Luoma, D., McKay, D., Castellano, M.A., Lebel, T., and Valachovic, Y. 2002. Species richness, abundance, and composition of hypogeous and epigeous ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarps in young, rotation-age, and old-growth stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Cascade Range of Oregon, USA. Can. J. Bot. 80: 186-204.
100. Söderström, B., and Read, D.J. 1987. Respiratory activity of intact and excised ectomycorrhizal mycelial systems growing in unsterilized soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 19: 231-236.
101. Spies, T. 1997. Forest stand structure, composition, and function. In Creating a forestry for the 21st century. Edited by K.A. Kohm and J.F. Franklin. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 11-30.
102. Straatsma, G., and Krisai-Greilhuber, I. 2003. Assemblage structure, species richness, abundance, and distribution of fungal fruit bodies in a seven year plot-based survey near Vienna. Mycol. Res. 107: 632-640.
103. Straatsma, G., Ayer, F., and Egli, S. 2001. Species richness, abundance, and phenology of fungal fruit bodies over 21 years in a Swiss forest plot. Mycol. Res. 105: 515-532.
104. Tabor, R.W., and Cady, W.M. 1978. Geologic map of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. US Geol. Surv. Misc. Invest. Ser.: Map I-994.
105. Taylor, A.F.S., Martin, F., and Read, D.J. 2000. Fungal diversity in ectomycorrhizal communities of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) along north-south transects in Europe. In Carbon and nitrogen cycling in European forest ecosystems. Ecol. Stud. 142: 344-365.
106. Termorshuizen, A.J. 1993. The influence of nitrogen fertilizers on ectomycorrhizas and their fungal carpophores in young stands of Pinus sylvestris. For. Ecol. Manage. 57: 179-189.
107. Termorshuizen, A.J., and Schaffers, A.P. 1987. Occurrence of carpophores of ectomycorrhizal fungi in selected stands of Pinus sylvestris in the Netherlands in relation to stand vitality and air pollution. Plant Soil, 104: 209-217.
108. Termorshuizen, A.J., and Schaffers, A.P. 1989. The relation in the field between fruitbodies of mycorrhizal fungi and their mycorrhizas. Agric. Ecosyst. & Environ. 28: 509-512.
109. Termorshuizen, A., and Schaffers, A. 1991. The decline of carpophores of ectomycorrhizal fungi in stands of Pinus sylvestris L. in the Netherlands: possible causes. Nova Hedwigia, 53: 267-289.
110. Thompson, G.W., and Medve, R.J. 1984. Effects of aluminum and manganese on the growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48: 556-560.
111. Thompson, W. 1984. Distribution, development, and functioning of mycelial cord systems of decomposer basidiomycetes of the deciduous woodland floor. In The ecology and physiology of the fungal mycelium. Edited by D.H. Jennings and A.D.M. Rayner. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 185-214.
112. Trudell, S.A., Rygiewicz, P.T., and Edmonds, R.L. 2004. Patterns of nitrogen and carbon stable isotope ratios in macrofungi, plants, and soils in two old-growth conifer forests. New Phytol. In press.
113. Tuininga, A., Huskins, R., Dighton, J., and Belton, T. 2003. Nitrogen deposition effects on mycorrhizal communities in the New Jersey pine barrens. In Program and abstracts, Fourth International Conference on Mycorrhizae, Montréal, Quebec, 10-15 August. p. 394.
114. Tyler, G. 1985. Macrofungal flora of Swedish beech forest related to soil organic matter and acidity characteristics. For. Ecol. Manage. 10: 13-29.
115. Tyler, G. 1989. Edaphical distribution patterns of macrofungal species in deciduous forest of south Sweden. Acta Oecol. Oecol. Gen. 10: 309-326.
116. Tyler, G. 1992. Tree species affinity of decomposer and ectomycorrhizal macrofungi in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), oak (Quercus robur L.), and hornbeam (Carpinus betula L.) forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 47: 269-284.
117. Tyler, G., Pahlsson, A.M.B., Bergkvist, B.O., Falkengren, G.U., Folkeson, L., Nihlgard, B., Rühling, Å., and Stjernquist, I. 1992. Chemical and biological effects of artificially increased nitrogen deposition to the ground in a Swedish beech forest. Scand. J. For. Res. 7: 515-532.
118. Unestam, T. 1991. Water repellency, mat formation, and leaf-stimulated growth of some ectomycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhiza, 1: 13-20.
119. Unestam, T., and Sun, Y.-P. 1995. Extramatrical structures of hydrophobic and hydrophilic ectomycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhiza, 5: 301-311.
120. USFS and BLM. 1994. Final supplemental environmental impact statement on management of habitat for late-successional and old-growth forest related species within the range of the northern spotted owl. Vol. II: appendices. USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D.C.
121. Valdés, M., Córdova, J., Gómez, M., and Fierros, A.M. 2003. Understory vegetation and ectomycorrhizal sporocarp diversity response to pine regeneration methods in Oaxaca, México. West. J. Appl. For. 18: 101-108.
122. Villeneuve, N., Grandtner, M.M., and Fortin, J.A. 1989. Frequency and diversity of ectomycorrhizal and saprophytic macrofungi in the Laurentide Mountains of Quebec. Can. J. Bot. 67: 2616-2629.
123. Visser, S. 1995. Ectomycorrhizal fungal succession in jack pine stands following wildfire. New Phytol. 129: 389-401.
124. Vitousek, P.M., Aber, J.D., Howarth, R.W., Likens, G.E., Matson, P.A., Schindler, D.W., Schlesinger, W.H., and Tilman, D.G. 1997. Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences. Ecol. Appl. 7: 737-750.
125. Vogt, K.A., Publicover, D.A., Bloomfield, J., Perez, J.M., Vogt, D.J., and Silver, W.L. 1993. Belowground responses as indicators of environmental change. Environ. Exp. Bot. 33: 189-205.
126. Walker, C. 1987. Sitka spruce mycorrhizas. Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh Ser. B, 93: 117-129.
127. Wallander, H. 1995. A new hypothesis to explain allocation of dry matter between mycorrhizal fungi and pine seedlings in relation to nutrient supply. Plant Soil, 168-169: 243-248.
128. Wallander, H., and Nylund, J.-E. 1992. Effects of excess nitrogen and phosphorus starvation on the extramatrical mycelium of ectomycorrhizas of Pinus sylvestris L. New Phytol. 120: 495-503.
129. Wallenda, T., and Kottke, I. 1998. Nitrogen deposition and ectomycorrhizas. New Phytol. 139: 169-187.
130. Wallenda, T., Schaeffer, C., Einig, W., Wingler, A., Hampp, R., Seith, B., George, E., and Marschner, H. 1996. Effects of varied soil nitrogen supply on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) II. Carbon metabolism in needles and mycorrhizal roots. Plant Soil, 186: 361-369.
131. Watkinson, S.C. 1979. Growth of rhizomorphs, mycelial strands, coremia, and sclerotia. In Fungal walls and hyphal growth. Edited by J.H. Burnett and A.P.J. Trinci. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 93-113.
132. Watkinson, S.C. 1984. Morphogenesis of the Serpula lacrimans colony in relation to its function in nature. In The ecology and physiology of the fungal mycelium. Edited by D.H. Jennings and A.D.M. Rayner. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 165-184.
133. Watling, R. 1995. Assessment of fungal diversity: macromycetes, the problems. Can. J. Bot. 73(Suppl. 1): S15-S24.
134. Wiklund, K., Nilsson, L.-O., and Jacobsson, S. 1995. Effect of irrigation, fertilization, and artificial drought on basidioma production in a Norway spruce stand. Can. J. Bot. 73: 200-208.
135. Wilkins, W.H., Ellis, E.M., and Harley, J.L. 1937. The ecology of the larger fungi I. Constancy and frequency of fungal species in relation to certain vegetation communities, particularly oak and beech. Ann. Appl. Biol. 24: 703-732.
136. Williams, M.W., and Tonnessen, K.A. 2000. Critical loads for inorganic nitrogen deposition in the Colorado Front Range, USA. Ecol. Appl. 10: 1648-1665.
137. Worley, J.F., and Hacskaylo, E. 1959. The effect of available soil moisture on the mycorrhizal association of Virginia pine. For. Sci. 5: 267-268.