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De Bernardis F, Liu H, O'Mahony R, et al. Human domain antibodies against virulence traits of Candida albicans inhibit fungus adherence to vaginal epithelium and protect against experimental vaginal candidiasis. J Infect Dis 2007; 195:149-157. A well designed study demonstrated that the antibody immune response is of major importance for the outcome of a mucosal infection (vaginitis) with Candida. Specific antibodies against well defined fungal virulence factors, including the secreted protease Sap2, are not only protective but also curative in rats, with an efficacy similar to antifungal azoles.
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Léchenne B, Reichard U, Zaugg C, et al. Sulphite efflux pumps in Aspergillus fumigatus and dermatophytes. Microbiology 2007; 153:905-913. The authors report, for the first time, the molecular characterization of a sulphite efflux pump involved in a well known phenomenon (excretion of sulphites) that is observed during keratin degradation by dermatophytes. They propose that this pathogenic factor can act cooperatively with previously isolated proteases in keratin degradation.
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Léchenne B, Reichard U, Zaugg C, et al. Sulphite efflux pumps in Aspergillus fumigatus and dermatophytes. Microbiology 2007; 153:905-913. The authors report, for the first time, the molecular characterization of a sulphite efflux pump involved in a well known phenomenon (excretion of sulphites) that is observed during keratin degradation by dermatophytes. They propose that this pathogenic factor can act cooperatively with previously isolated proteases in keratin degradation.
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Tabart J, Baldo A, Vermout S, et al. Reconstructed interfollicular feline epidermis as a model for Microsporum canis dermatophytosis. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56:971-975. Two key points make this new in-vitro model for Microsporum canis dermatophytosis original and useful for further immunological investigations. Firstly, the reconstructed epidermis is a living tissue containing corneocytes which are, in vivo, the first cells to enter in contact with the fungus. Secondly, keratinocytes are of feline origin, and cats are the natural host for M. canis.
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Tabart J, Baldo A, Vermout S, et al. Reconstructed interfollicular feline epidermis as a model for Microsporum canis dermatophytosis. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56:971-975. Two key points make this new in-vitro model for Microsporum canis dermatophytosis original and useful for further immunological investigations. Firstly, the reconstructed epidermis is a living tissue containing corneocytes which are, in vivo, the first cells to enter in contact with the fungus. Secondly, keratinocytes are of feline origin, and cats are the natural host for M. canis.
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Zelante T, Montagnoli C, Bozza S, et al. Receptors and pathways in innate antifungal immunity: the implication for tolerance and immunity to fungi. Adv Exp Med Biol 2007; 590:209-221. This is an excellent review on innate immunity to fungi, focusing mainly on opportunistic fungi.
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Bellocchio S, Montagnoli C, Bozza S, et al. The contribution of the Toll-like/IL-1 receptor superfamily to innate and adaptive immunity to fungal pathogens in vivo. J Immunol 2004; 172:3059-3069.
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Nakamura Y, Kano R, Hasegawa A, Watanabe S. Interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor alpha production in human epidermal keratinocytes induced by Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2002; 9:935-937.
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This study confirmed that dermatophytes are able to induce, by keratinocytes, the production of IL-8, a potent chemo-attractant for neutrophils
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Tani K, Adachi M, Nakamura Y, et al. The effect of dermatophytes on cytokine production by human keratinocytes. Arch Dermatol Res 2007; 299:381-387. This study confirmed that dermatophytes are able to induce, by keratinocytes, the production of IL-8, a potent chemo-attractant for neutrophils.
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An interesting investigative study was conducted on alterations of epidermal differentiation, barrier functions, and secretion of antimicrobial peptides occurring in human skin infected by Trichophyton rubrum
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Jensen JM, Pfeiffer S, Akaki T, et al. Barrier function, epidermal differentiation, and human beta-defensin 2 expression in tinea corporis. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127:1720-1727. An interesting investigative study was conducted on alterations of epidermal differentiation, barrier functions, and secretion of antimicrobial peptides occurring in human skin infected by Trichophyton rubrum.
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Lopez-Garcia B, Lee P, Gallo R. Expression and potential function of cathelicidin antimicrobial peptides in dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57:877-882. This study demonstrated the in-vitro antifungal activity of the antimicrobial peptides cathelicidin LL-37 and CRAMP on Trichophyton species. The authors also report an increase of the expression of LL-37 in human epidermis infected with T. rubrum, suggesting a role for the cathelicidins in skin defence against dermatophytes.
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Lopez-Garcia B, Lee P, Gallo R. Expression and potential function of cathelicidin antimicrobial peptides in dermatophytosis and tinea versicolor. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57:877-882. This study demonstrated the in-vitro antifungal activity of the antimicrobial peptides cathelicidin LL-37 and CRAMP on Trichophyton species. The authors also report an increase of the expression of LL-37 in human epidermis infected with T. rubrum, suggesting a role for the cathelicidins in skin defence against dermatophytes.
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Sato K, Yang X, Yudate T, et al. Dectin-2 is a pattern recognition receptor for fungi that couples with the Fc receptor gamma chain to induce innate immune responses. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:38854-38866. This important study showed for the first time an interaction between dermatophytes and a pattern recognition receptor (PRR). The PRR dectin-2 on dendritic cells binds differentially to conidia and hyphae of T. rubrum. This suggests that, as observed for opportunistic fungi, the peculiar dermatophytic structure interacting with a peculiar cell receptor is of major importance for the subsequent generated immune response.
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Sato K, Yang X, Yudate T, et al. Dectin-2 is a pattern recognition receptor for fungi that couples with the Fc receptor gamma chain to induce innate immune responses. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:38854-38866. This important study showed for the first time an interaction between dermatophytes and a pattern recognition receptor (PRR). The PRR dectin-2 on dendritic cells binds differentially to conidia and hyphae of T. rubrum. This suggests that, as observed for opportunistic fungi, the peculiar dermatophytic structure interacting with a peculiar cell receptor is of major importance for the subsequent generated immune response.
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Stimulation, inhibition and death of macrophages infected with Trichophyton rubrum
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This provides an insight into the putative cellular and molecular mechanisms of immuno-modulation that could be exerted by dermatophytes in chronic infections
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Campos M, Russo M, Gomes E, Almeida S. Stimulation, inhibition and death of macrophages infected with Trichophyton rubrum. Microbes Infect 2006; 8:372-379. This provides an insight into the putative cellular and molecular mechanisms of immuno-modulation that could be exerted by dermatophytes in chronic infections.
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Dillon S, Agrawal S, Banerjee K, et al. Yeast zymosan, a stimulus for TLR2 and dectin-1, induces regulatory antigen-presenting cells and immunological tolerance. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:916-928. The authors provide a demonstration that a supposed pro-inflammatory fungal component (zymosan) can induce regulatory dendritic cells and immune tolerance via both TLR2 and dectin-1.
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Dillon S, Agrawal S, Banerjee K, et al. Yeast zymosan, a stimulus for TLR2 and dectin-1, induces regulatory antigen-presenting cells and immunological tolerance. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:916-928. The authors provide a demonstration that a supposed pro-inflammatory fungal component (zymosan) can induce regulatory dendritic cells and immune tolerance via both TLR2 and dectin-1.
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Toll-like receptor 2 controls expansion and function of regulatory T cells
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This sophisticated study showed that TLR2 triggering by pathogen-associated molecular patterns present on or secreted by infectious organisms, such as Candida albicans, can directly modulate regulatory T-cell function in vivo
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Sutmuller R, den Brok M, Kramer M, et al. Toll-like receptor 2 controls expansion and function of regulatory T cells. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:485-494. This sophisticated study showed that TLR2 triggering by pathogen-associated molecular patterns present on or secreted by infectious organisms, such as Candida albicans, can directly modulate regulatory T-cell function in vivo.
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Ludwig IS, Geijtenbeek T, van Kooyk Y. Two way communication between neutrophils and dendritic cells. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2006; 6:408-413. This is a clear, concise and well illustrated review on how neutrophils and dendritic cells interact with each other, and how these interactions and the production of TNF-α by neutrophils induce maturation of dendritic cells and instruct them to polarize T cells towards Th1 cells.
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Ludwig IS, Geijtenbeek T, van Kooyk Y. Two way communication between neutrophils and dendritic cells. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2006; 6:408-413. This is a clear, concise and well illustrated review on how neutrophils and dendritic cells interact with each other, and how these interactions and the production of TNF-α by neutrophils induce maturation of dendritic cells and instruct them to polarize T cells towards Th1 cells.
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Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) induce protective Th1-type cytokine epithelial responses in an in vitro model of oral candidosis
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Schaller M, Boeld U, Oberbauer S, et al. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) induce protective Th1-type cytokine epithelial responses in an in vitro model of oral candidosis. Microbiology 2004; 150:2807-2813.
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Jousson O, Léchenne B, Bontems O, et al. Multiplication of an ancestral gene encoding secreted fungalysin preceded species differentiation in the dermatophytes Trichophyton and Microsporum. Microbiology 2004; 150:301-310.
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Jousson O, Lechenne B, Bontems O, et al. Secreted subtilisin gene family in Trichophyton rubrum. Gene 2004; 339:79-88.
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Kaufman G, Horwitz B, Duek L, et al. Infection stages of the dermatophyte pathogen Trichophyton: microscopic characterization and proteolytic enzymes. Med Mycol 2007; 45:149-155.
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Monod M, Lechenne B, Jousson O, et al. Aminopeptidases and dipeptidylpeptidases secreted by the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. Microbiology 2005; 151:145-155.
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Yamada T, Makimura K, Abe S. Isolation, characterization, and disruption of dnr1, the areA/nit-2-like nitrogen regulatory gene of the zoophilic dermatophyte, Microsporum canis. Med Mycol 2006; 44:243-252. Targeted gene disruption mediated by homologous recombination was obtained for the first time in a dermatophyte.
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Yamada T, Makimura K, Abe S. Isolation, characterization, and disruption of dnr1, the areA/nit-2-like nitrogen regulatory gene of the zoophilic dermatophyte, Microsporum canis. Med Mycol 2006; 44:243-252. Targeted gene disruption mediated by homologous recombination was obtained for the first time in a dermatophyte.
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Ferreira-Nozawa M, Silveira H, Ono C, et al. The pH signaling transcription factor PacC mediates the growth of Trichophyton rubrum on human nail in vitro. Med Mycol 2006; 44:641-645. The authors present an interesting insight into the molecular regulation of the in-vitro keratinolytic activity of a dermatophyte, showing that disruption of the gene encoding PacC, a putative pH signalling transcription regulator of T. rubrum, decreases the fungal growth on isolated human nails.
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Ferreira-Nozawa M, Silveira H, Ono C, et al. The pH signaling transcription factor PacC mediates the growth of Trichophyton rubrum on human nail in vitro. Med Mycol 2006; 44:641-645. The authors present an interesting insight into the molecular regulation of the in-vitro keratinolytic activity of a dermatophyte, showing that disruption of the gene encoding PacC, a putative pH signalling transcription regulator of T. rubrum, decreases the fungal growth on isolated human nails.
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