Welfare as warfare: How violent non-state groups use social services to attack the state

Studies in Conflict and Terrorism

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 350-370

  Grynkewich, Alexus ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 41749119675     PISSN: 1057610X     EISSN: 15210731     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10576100801931321     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Shawn Teresa Flanigan, "Charity as Resistance: Connections between Charity, Contentious Politics, and Terror," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29(7) (October-November 2006), p. 641.
2. International Crisis Group, Islamic Social Welfare Activism in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: A Legitimate Target? ICG Middle East Report No. 13 (Amman/Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2 April 2003), p. ii. Available from http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/ index.cfm?id=3033&l=1 (accessed 4 April 2006).
3. Ibid., p. 2.
4. Flanigan, "Charity as Resistance," p. 642.
5. MaxWeber, "Politics as aVocation," in MaxWeber, From MaxWeber: Essays in Sociology, trans. and ed. by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York, Oxford University Press, 1946), p. 78.
6. See, for example, Jennifer S. Holmes, Terrorism and Democratic Stability (New York: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 115.
7. For the FARC, Paul E. Saskiewicz, The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia - People's Army (FARC-IP): Marxist-Leninist Insurgency or Criminal Enterprise, Master's Thesis (Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School, December 2005). For the PIRA, see Caroline- Kennedy Pipe, Origins of the Present Troubles in Northern Ireland (London: Longman, 1997). For insurgency in Iraq,
8. see Ahmid S. Hashim, Insurgency And Counter-Insurgency in Iraq (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006).
9. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1660), chapter XIII, available at http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/ leviathan-contents.html (accessed 10 August 2006).
10. Hobbes, Leviathan, chapter XVII.
11. John Locke, Two Treatise of Government, ed. Thomas I. Cook (New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1947), section 123, 184.
12. For example, Jean-Jacque Rousseau laid the foundation for the inclusion of economics in the social contract, arguing that the existence of private property can undermine the contract by ossifying the inequalities among men. See Jean-Jacque Rousseau, The Social Contract trans. by G. D. H. Cole (1762), book 1, chapter 9, available from http://www.constitution.org/jjr/socon 01.htm#009 (accessed 10 August 2006).
13. David Boucher and David Kelly, "The Social Contract and Its Critics: An Overview," in David Boucher and David Kelly, eds., The Social Contract from Hobbes to Rawls (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 2.
14. Nancy Birdsall and Stephan Haggard, After the Crisis: The Social Contract and theMiddle Class in East Asia (Washington, D.C: The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000), p. 4.
15. Vali Nasr, correspondence with the author, 12 August 2006.
16. Bridsall and Haggard, After the Crisis, pp. 9-16.
17. Roland Benabou, "Unequal Societies: Income Distribution and the Social Contract," NBER Working Paper No. 10371 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2004), p. 1, available at http://www.nber.org/papers/w10371 (accessed 10 August 2006).
18. Shahbrough Akhavi, "Sunni Modernists Theories of Social Contract in Contemporary Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 35 (2003), p. 26.
19. Ibid.
20. Asef Bayat, "Cairo's Poor: Dilemmas of Survival and Solidarity," Middle East Report, no. 202 (Winter 1996), p. 4.
21. See also John Waterbury, "The 'Soft State' and the Open Door: Egypt's Experience with Economic Liberalization 1974-1984," Comparative Politics 18 (October 1985), p. 69.
22. Hesham Al-Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy: The Muslim Brothers and Mubarak 1982-2000 (New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 2004), p. 11.
23. Egyptian journalist Khalid Munir, quoted in Al-Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy, p. 11.
24. Ervand Abrahaman, Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 18.
25. Ibid., p. 19.
26. Ibid., p. 23.
27. Ibid., p. 54.
28. Bulent Aras, "Transformation of the Iranian Political System: Towards a New Model?" Middle East Review of International Affairs 3(5) (September 2001), pp. 12-14.
29. United Nations, "Conclusions and Recommendations of the Workshop on Iraq and the Region after the War: Issues of Economic and Social Reconstruction," 9-11 July 2003, available at http://www.escwa.org.lb/information/iraq/docs/ConclRec.pdf (accessed 11 August 2006).
30. Vali Nasr, class lecture (Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School, Spring 2006).
31. Emmanuel Sivan, "Why Radical Muslims Aren't Taking Over Governments," Middle East Review of International Affairs 2(2) (May 1988), available at http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/meria/ journal/1998/issue2/jv2n2a2.html (accessed 1 September 2006).
32. Al-Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy, pp. 92-98. Quote is from p. 95.
33. Paul Eedle, "Poor Suffer Most in Egyptian Earthquake," ReutersNews Service, 13 October 2002, available at http://www.outtherenews.com/modules.php?op=modload&name= News&filearticle&sid=75&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 (accessed 31 August 2006).
34. Paul M. Lubeck and Bryana Britts, "Muslim Civil Society in Urban Spaces: Globalization, Discursive Shifts, and Social Movements," in John Eade and Christopher Mele, eds., Understanding the City: Contemporary and Future Perspectives (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002), p. 320.
35. Ibid.
36. Asef Bayat, "Revolution without Movement, Movement without Revolution: Comparing Islamic Activism in Iran and Egypt," Comparative Studies in Society and History 40(1) (January 1998), p. 165.
37. Al-Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy, p. 179.
38. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 12-24.
39. Al-Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy, p. 195.
40. Carrie Rosefsky Wickham, Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism and Political Change in Egypt (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), p. 90.
41. Quoted in Kim Murphy, "Hamas Victory is Built on Social Work; though notorious as a military group, it is better known among Palestinians for its food banks and quality schools and clinics," Los Angeles Times (2 March 2006), p. A5.
42. Al-Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy, p. 202.
43. Ibid.
44. Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations: Subversion, Insurgency and Peacekeeping (London: Faber, 1971), p. 65.
45. Thomas R.Mockaitis, "Winning Hearts andMinds in the "War on Terrorism,'"; in Thomas R. Mckaitis and Paul B. Rich, eds., Grand Strategy in the War against Terrorism (London: Frank Cass, 2004), p. 21.
46. Gordon H. McCarmick, The Shining Path and the Future of Peru (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, March 1990), 18-19.
47. Mia M. Bloom, "Palestinian Suicide Bombing: Public Support, Market Share, and Outbidding," Political Science Quarterly 119(1) (Spring 2004), p. 61.
48. Ibid., pp. 65, 68.
49. Ibid., p. 66.
50. Ibid., p. 69.
51. For an excellent discussion of assisted popular preferences through coercion or incentives, see Nathan Leites and Charles Wolf, Jr., Rebellion and Authority: An Analytic Essay on Insurgent Conflicts (Chicago: Markham Publishing Company and the RAND Corporation, 1970).
52. Michael Widlanski, "Jewish women not always pleased at being 'rescued' from Arab 'enemy'," Ottawa Citizen (6 March 1986), p. C18, available at http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/
53. The Yomiuri Shimbun, "Japanese cult plans social welfare services," 3 August 2005, available at http://www.rickross.com/ reference/aum/aum429.html (accessed 11 August 2006).
54. Mohammed M. Hafez, Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic world (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2004), p. 77.
55. Ray Takeyh, "Islamism in Algeria: A struggle between hope and agony," Council on Foreign Relations, online article (Summer 2003), available at http://www.cfr.org/publication/7335/islamisminalgeria.html (accessed 20 September 2006).
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. McCormick, p. 19.
59. Billie Jean Isbell, "Shining Path and Peasant Responses in Rural Ayacucho," in David Scott Palmer, ed., The Shining Path of Peru (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), p. 61. For a discussion of Sendero's failed attempts to built a counter-state on the classic insurgency model,
60. see Robert B. Kent, "Geographical Dimensions of the Shining Path Insurgency in Peru," Geographical Review 83(4) (October 1993 , pp. 441-454.
61. Flanigan, "Charity as Resistance," p. 646.
62. Michael Freeman, Freedom or Security: The Consequences for Democracies Using Emergency Powers to Fighter Terror (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), p. 87.
63. Shaul Mishal andAvraham Sela, The PalestinianHamas: Vision, Violence, and Coexistence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p. viii.
64. Hala Jaber, Hezbollah: Born with a Vengeance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), pp. 147-148.
65. Jan McGirk, "Kashmir: The politics of an earthquake," online article, 19 October 2005, available at www.opendemocracy.net (accessed 3 August 2006).
66. Edy Kaufman, Uruguay in Transition: From Civilian to Military Rule (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1979), p. 1.
67. MartinWeinstein, Uruguay: Democracy at the Crossroads (Boulder, CO:WEstview Press, 1988), p. xv.
68. Ibid., p. 39.
69. Ibid.
70. For a discussion of Uruguay as welfare state, seeGeorge Pendle, Uruguay, South America's First Welfare State (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1952).
71. Kaufman, Uruguay in Transition, pp. 24-25.
72. Arturo C. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros: The Urban Guerrilla (New York: Praeger, 1973), p. 6.
73. Freeman, Freedom or Security, p. 87.
74. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros 17.
75. Frances Foland, "A New Model for Revolutions? Uruguay's Urban Guerrillas," The New Leader, 4 October 1971, p. 9.
76. Robert Moss, "Uruguay: Terrorism versus Democracy," Conflict Studies 14 (August 1971), p. 7.
77. See also, Foland, "A New Model for Revolutions?," p. 8.
78. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros, p. 45.
79. Foland, "A New Model for Revolutions?," 9.
80. For example, on 14 February 1969 a group of Tupamaros broke into the offices of Financiera Monty, a large illegal loan company. The confidential accounting books seized by the group provided evidence of "misuse of public funds and the involvement in illegal lending and currency speculation of several important government officials. [The Tupamaros] forwarded the account books to a judge," and the ensuing scandal resulted in the resignation of several officials. See ibid.
81. Foland, "A New Model for Revolutions?," p. 9.
82. Anthony Burton, Urban Terrorism: Theory, Practice and Response (London: Leo Cooper, 1975), p. 102.
83. Maria EstherGilio,The TupamaroGuerrillas, trans.Anne Edmonson (NewYork: Saturday Review Press, 1972), p. 82. This particular interview was taken in 1969.
84. The group publicized this aspect of its strategy: "We do not go outside the country to seek financing for our revolution, but seize from our enemies the money to mount the necessary revolutionary campaign." From a communiqu'e published in the Tricontinental Bulletin 5, no. 46 (January 1970), p. 44, quoted in Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros, p. 40.
85. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros, p. 40.
86. Foland, "A New Model for Revolutions?," p. 9.
87. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros, pp. 40-41. See also Foland, "A New Model for Revolutions?," p. 9.
88. Christopher Hewitt, The Effectiveness of Anti-Terrorist Policies (New York: University Press of America, 1984), p. 69. See also, Freeman, Freedom or Security, pp. 93-95.
89. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros 56.
90. Ibid., 69.
91. Burton, Urban Terrorism, p. 102.
92. The White House, National Strategy for Combating Terrorism (Washington, DC: The White House, February, 2003), p. 17.
93. Juan C. Zarate, Deputy Assistant Secretary, Executive Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crime, U.S. Department of the Treasury, Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 18 March 2003, available at http://www.treas.gov/press/releases/js139.htm (accessed 2 June 2006).
94. President GeorgeW. Bush, Executive Order (EO) 13224, "Blocking Property and Prohibiting Transactions with Persons Who Commit, Threaten to Commit, or Support Terrorism," Federal Register 66(186) (25 September 2001), p. 49079, available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001 register&docid=fr25se01-133.pdf (accessed 7 May 2006). Cited hereafter as EO 13224.
95. in 1995, listed it as a foreign terrorist organization in 1997, and designated it as an SDGT under EO 12224 in 2001. Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, U.S. Department of the Treasury, Key Issues: Protecting Charitable Organizations, HAMAS-Related Charities (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury, no date), available at http://www.treasury.gov/offices/enforcement/keyissues/protecting/ charitiesexecorder13224-e.shtml#hlf (accessed 8 May 2006).
96. Office of Foreign Assets Control, U.S. Department of the Treasury, Terrorist Assets Report: Calendar Year 2001 Annual Report to Congress on Assets in the United States of Terrorist Countries and International Terrorism Program Designees (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2001), p. 6, available at http://www.treas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/reports/tar2001short.pdf (accessed 8 May 2006).
97. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base, available at http://www.tkb.org/Home.jsp (accessed 8 May 2006).
98. PCPSR, Poll #3: Palestinians Support the Ceasefire, Negotiations, and Reconciliation between the Two Peoples but a Majority Opposes Arrests and believe that Armed Confrontations have Helped Achieve National Rights, 19-24 December 2001.
99. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base, available from http://www.tkb.org/ Home.jsp (accessed 8 May 2006).
100. In fact, it rose slightly to 17.6 percent. PCPSR, Poll #14: In an environment of increased realism and hope, in which the popularity of Fateh greatly increases while that of Hamas decreases, a close presidential race between Mahmud Abbas (Abu Mazin) and Marwan Barghouti 1-5 December 2004.
101. BBC News, "Hamas Sweeps to Election Victory," online article, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle east/4650788.stm (accessed 8 May 2006).
102. Middle East and North Africa Region, The World Bank, Poverty in the West Bank and Gaza (World Bank, January 2001), p. 7, available at http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/mna/mena.nsf/Attachments/ Poverty+Report+WBG/$File/poverty+report.pdf (accessed 8 May 2006).
103. Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Gaza Strip, online publication, updated 19 June 2007, available at https://www.cia.gov/ library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/gz.html#Econ (accessed 4 July 2007).
104. Ibid.
105. The Charter of the Islamic Resistance Movement (HAMAS), Article 21, quoted in Mishal and Sela, The Palestinian Hamas, p. 189.
106. International Crisis Group, Islamic Social Welfare Activism in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: A Legitimate Target?, p. 11.
107. Ibid.
108. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base, "Hamas," available at http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=49 (accessed 7 September 2006).
109. Alan Johnston, "Rough start for Palestinian parliament," BBC News, online article, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle east4780442.stm (accessed 3 June 2006).
110. Council on Foreign Relations, "Backgrounder: Hamas," online article, 16 March 2006, available at http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968/ (accessed 4 June 2006).
111. PCPSR, Poll #24: Anger and lack of confidence prevails in the Palestinian Street, 14-20 June 2007.
112. Steven Gutkin, "Hamas' Gaza Faces Bleak Times," Los Angles Times online edition, 30 June 2007, available at http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/wire/sns-ap-hamasgaza, 1,1764173.story?coll=sns-ap-world-headlines (accessed 4 July 2007).
113. U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC), Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (Washington, DC:U.S.Department of the Treasury, 2006), p. 122, available at http://www.treasury.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/sdn/t11sdn.pdf (accessed 7 September 2006).
114. Homayra Ziad, "Hezbollah-Terrorist Group or Political Party?" The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 22(4) (May 2003), p. 72.
115. "An Open Letter: The Hizballah Program," 16 February 1985, available at http://www.ict.org.il/Articles/Hizletter.htm (accessed 5 September 2006).
116. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base, "Hezbollah," available at http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=3101 (accessed 5 September 2006).
117. "An Open Letter: The Hizballah Program," 16 Feburary 1985, available at http://www.ict.org.il/Articles/Hizletter.htm (accessed 5 September 2006).
118. Jaber, Hezbollah, p. 147.
119. Ibid., pp. 145-146.
120. Judith Palmer Harik, Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2004), p. 82.
121. Jaber, Hezbollah, p. 150.
122. Harik, Hezbollah, p. 83.
123. Jaber, Hezbollah, pp. 159-168.
124. Bryan R. Early, "Larger than a Party, yet Smaller than a State: Locating Hezbollah's Place within Lebanon's State and Society," World Affairs 168(3) (Winter 2006), p. 120.
125. Ibid., p. 115.
126. The Lebanese contract is unique in that the division of power in the government is based on power-sharing arrangement among themajor religious confessions, the Sunni, Shi'a, and Maronite Christians. The 1975 to 1989 Lebanese Civil War erupted largely due to the failure of this system. See Michael Johnson, All Honourable Men: The Social Origins of War in Lebanon (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2001).
127. Early, "Larger than a Party, yet Smaller than a State," p. 122.
128. Ibid., pp. 117-122.
129. Ibid., pp. 117-122.
130. Hugh Sykes, "Stressed Out and Anxious in Beirut," BBC News, online article, 5 August 2006, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle east/5248500.stm (accessed 6 September 2006).
131. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base.
132. Magnus Ranstorp, "The Strategy and Tactics of Hizballah's Current 'Lebanonization Process,'" Mediterranean Politics 3(1) (Summer 1998), p. 115.
133. Flanigan, "Charity as Resistance," p. 649.
134. Wikipedia, "Hezbollah," available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah (accessed 7 September 2006).
135. World Public Opinion.org, "Poll Finds Overwhelming Majorities in Lebanon Support Hezbollah, Distrust U.S.," online article, 2 August 2006, available at http://www. worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/ brmiddleeastnafricara/236.php?nid=&id=&pnt=236&lb=brme (accessed 6 September 2006).
136. John Kifner, "Hezbollah Leads Work to Rebuild, Gaining Stature," The New York Times, 16 August 2006, p. A1.
137. Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros, p. 69.
138. Burton, Urban Terrorism, p. 102.
139. Interestingly, the Tupamaros did attempt to arrest their decline in legitimacy by expanding their resources base in (for them) unconventional ways. In early 1972 the guerrillas formed a Committee on International Affairs with the goal "to obtain arms and money from abroad." Unfortunately for the Tupamaros, by then it was too late. See Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros, p. 23.
140. International Crisis Group, Islamic Social Welfare Activism in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: A Legitimate Target?, p. 1.
141. Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad (New Haven: Yale University Press in cooperation with the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2006), p. 55. See also, International Crisis Group, Islamic Social Welfare Activism in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: A Legitimate Target? p. 245.
142. Barbara Koremenos, Charles Lipson, and Duncan Snidal, "The Rational Design of International Institutions," International Organization 55(4) (Autumn 2001), p. 775.
143. See also, Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 9-11, for an economic parallel to this state-level collective action problem. 138. Levitt, p. 55.
144. As just one example, Hamas has often increased its support by escalating its violence against Israel. In December 2001, 60 percent of Palestinians agreed that recent attacks against the Jewish state had "achieved Palestinian rights in a way that negotiations could not." PCPSR, Poll #3.