Hormones and pregnancy: Thromboembolic risks for women

British Journal of Haematology

Volumn 126, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 443-454

  Kujovich, Jody L ^a  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Factor V Leiden; Hormone replacement therapy; Pregnancy; Thromboembolism; Thrombophilia

Indexed keywords

BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 8; CYPROTERONE; DESOGESTREL; DROSPIRENONE; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; ETHINYLESTRADIOL; GESTAGEN; GESTODENE; LEVONORGESTREL; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; PHOSPHOLIPID ANTIBODY; PROTEIN C; PROTEIN S; RALOXIFENE; SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATOR; TAMOXIFEN;

ANTICOAGULATION; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5 DEFICIENCY; BONE MARROW; BREAST CANCER; CAUCASIAN; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CONTRACEPTION; FIBRINOLYSIS; GENE MUTATION; HIGH RISK PREGNANCY; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; LUNG EMBOLISM; OSTEOPOROSIS; POSTMENOPAUSE; PREMENOPAUSE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; THROMBOPHILIA; THROMBOSIS; TREATMENT WITHDRAWAL; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

CONTRACEPTIVES, ORAL, HORMONAL; ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY; FEMALE; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, CARDIOVASCULAR; THROMBOEMBOLISM; VENOUS THROMBOSIS;

EID: 4143103482     PISSN: 00071048     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2004.05041.x     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Abdollahi, M., Cushman, M. & Rosendaal, F.R. (2003) Obesity: risk of venous thrombosis and the interaction with coagulation factor levels and oral contraceptive use. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 89, 493-498.
2. Andersen, B.S., Olsen, J., Nielsen, G.L., Steffensen, F.H., Sorensen, H.T., Baech, J. & Gregersen, H. (1998) Third generation oral contraceptives and heritable thrombophilia as risk factors of non-fatal venous thromboembolism. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 79, 28-31.
3. Anderson, G.L., Limacher, M., Assaf, A.R., Bassford, T., Beresford, S.A., Black, H., Bonds, D., Brunner, R., Brzyski, R., Caan, B., Chlebowski, R., Curb, D., Gass, M., Hays, J., Heiss, G., Hendrix, S., Howard, B.V., Hsia, J., Hubbell, A., Jackson, R., Johnson, K.C., Judd, H., Kotchen, J.M., Kuller, L., LaCroix, A.Z., Lane, D., Langer, R.D., Lasser, N., Lewis, C.E., Manson, J., Margolis, K., Ockene, J., O'Sullivan, M.J., Phillips, L., Prentice, R.L., Ritenbaugh, C., Robbins, J., Rossouw, J.E., Sarto, G., Stefanick, M.L., Van Horn, L., Wactawski-Wende, J., Wallace, R. & Wassertheil-Smoller, S. (2004) Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 291, 1701-1712.
4. Bloemenkamp, K.W., Rosendaal, F.R., Helmerhorst, F.M., Buller, H.R. & Vandenbroucke, J.P. (1995) Enhancement by factor V Leiden mutation of risk of deep-vein thrombosis associated with oral contraceptives containing a third-generation progestagen. Lancet, 346, 1593-1596.
5. Bloemenkamp, K.W., Rosendaal, F.R., Helmerhorst, F.M., Koster, T., Bertina, R.M. & Vandenbroucke, J.P. (1998) Hemostatic effects of oral contraceptives in women who developed deep-vein thrombosis while using oral contraceptives. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 80, 382-387.
6. Bloemenkamp, K.W., Helmerhorst, F.M., Rosendaal, F.R. & Vandenbroucke, J.P. (1999) Venous thrombosis, oral contraceptives and high factor VIII levels. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 82, 1024-1027.
7. Bloemenkamp, K.W., Rosendaal, F.R., Helmerhorst, F.M. & Vandenbroucke, J.P. (2000) Higher risk of venous thrombosis during early use of oral contraceptives in women with inherited clotting defects. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160, 49-52.
8. Bokarewa, M.I., Bremme, K. & Blomback, M. (1996) Arg506-Gln mutation in factor V and risk of thrombosis during pregnancy. British Journal of Haematology, 92, 473-478.
9. van Boven, H.H., Vandenbroucke, J.P., Briet, E. & Rosendaal, F.R. (1999) Gene-gene and gene-environment interactions determine risk of thrombosis in families with inherited antithrombin deficiency. Blood, 94, 2590-2594.
10. Bremme, K., Ostlund, E., Almqvist, I., Heinonen, K. & Blomback, M. (1992) Enhanced thrombin generation and fibrinolytic activity in normal pregnancy and the puerperium. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 80, 132-137.
11. Brill-Edwards, P., Ginsberg, J.S., Gent, M., Hirsh, J., Burrows, R., Kearon, C., Geerts, W., Kovacs, M., Weitz, J.I., Robinson, K.S., Whittom, R. & Couture, G. (2000) Safety of withholding heparin in pregnant women with a history of venous thromboembolism. Recurrence of clot in this Pregnancy Study Group. New England Journal of Medicine, 343, 1439-1444.
12. Clark, P., Brennand, J., Conkie, J.A., McCall, F., Greer, I.A. & Walker, I.D. (1998) Activated protein C sensitivity, protein C, protein S and coagulation in normal pregnancy. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 79, 1166-1170.
13. Comp, P.C., Thurnau, G.R., Welsh, J. & Esmon, C.T. (1986) Functional and immunologic protein S levels are decreased during pregnancy. Blood, 68, 881-885.
14. Cosmi, B., Legnani, C., Bernardi, F., Coccheri, S. & Palareti, G. (2003) Role of family history in identifying women with thrombophilia and higher risk of venous thromboembolism during oral contraception. Archives of Internal Medicine, 163, 1105-1109.
15. Cummings, S.R., Eckert, S., Krueger, K.A., Grady, D., Powles, T.J., Cauley, J.A., Norton, L., Nickelsen, T., Bjarnason, N.H., Morrow, M., Lippman, M.E., Black, D., Glusman, J.E., Costa, A. & Jordan, V.C. (1999) The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: results from the MORE randomized trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 2189-2197.
16. Cuzick, J., Forbes, J., Edwards, R., Baum, M., Cawthorn, S., Coates, A., Hamed, A., Howell, A. & Powles, T. (2002) First results from the International Breast Cancer Intervention Study (IBIS-I): a randomised prevention trial. Lancet, 360, 817-824.
17. Daly, E., Vessey, M.P., Hawkins, M.M., Carson, J.L., Gough, P. & Marsh, S. (1996) Risk of venous thromboembolism in users of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet, 348, 977-980.
18. Duggan, C., Marriott, K., Edwards, R. & Cuzick, J. (2003) Inherited and acquired risk factors for venous thromboembolic disease among women taking tamoxifen to prevent breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 21, 3588-3593.
19. Eichinger, S., Weltermann, A., Philipp, K., Hafner, E., Kaider, A., Kittl, E.M., Brenner, B., Mannhalter, C., Lechner, K. & Kyrle, P.A. (1999) Prospective evaluation of hemostatic system activation and thrombin potential in healthy pregnant women with and without factor V Leiden. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 82, 1232-1236.
20. Eldor, A. (2001) Thrombophilia, thrombosis and pregnancy. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 86, 104-111.
21. Emmerich, J., Rosendaal, F.R., Cattaneo, M., Margaglione, M., De Stefano, V., Cumming, T., Arruda, V., Hillarp, A. & Reny, J.L. (2001) Combined effect of factor V Leiden and prothrombin 20210A on the risk of venous thromboembolism - pooled analysis of 8 case-control studies including 2310 cases and 3204 controls. Study Group for Pooled-Analysis in Venous Thromboembolism. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 86, 809-816.
22. Erkan, D., Yazici, Y., Peterson, M.G., Sammaritano, L. & Lockshin, M.D. (2002) A cross-sectional study of clinical thrombotic risk factors and preventive treatments in antiphospholipid syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford), 41, 924-929.
23. Fisher, B., Costantino, J., Redmond, C., Poisson, R., Bowman, D., Couture, J., Dimitrov, N.V., Wolmark, N., Wickerham, D.L., Fisher, E.R. Margolese R., Robidoux A., Shibata H., Terz J., Paterson A.H.G., Feldman M.I., Farrar W., Evans J., Lickley H.L. & Ketner M. (1989) A randomized clinical trial evaluating tamoxifen in the treatment of patients with node-negative breast cancer who have estrogen-receptor-positive tumors. New England Journal of Medicine, 320, 479-484.
24. Fisher, B., Costantino, J.P., Wickerham, D.L., Redmond, C.K., Kavanah, M., Cronin, W.M., Vogel, V., Robidoux, A., Dimitrov, N., Atkins, J., Daly, M., Wieand, S., Tan-Chiu, E., Ford, L. & Wolmark, N. (1998) Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 90, 1371-1388.
25. Friederich, P.W., Sanson, B.J., Simioni, P., Zanardi, S., Huisman, M.V., Kindt, I., Prandoni, P., Buller, H.R., Girolami, A. & Prins, M.H. (1996) Frequency of pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism in anticoagulant factor-deficient women: implications for prophylaxis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 125, 955-960.
26. Gehring, N.H., Frede, U., Neu-Yilik, G., Hundsdoerfer, P., Vetter, B., Hentze, M.W. & Kulozik, A.E. (2001) Increased efficiency of mRNA 3′ end formation: a new genetic mechanism contributing to hereditary thrombophilia. Nature Genetics, 28, 389-392.
27. Gerhardt, A., Scharf, R.E., Beckmann, M.W., Struve, S., Bender, H.G., Pillny, M., Sandmann, W. & Zotz, R.B. (2000) Prothrombin and factor V mutations in women with a history of thrombosis during pregnancy and the puerperium. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 374-380.
28. Gerhardt, A., Scharf, R.E. & Zotz, R.B. (2003) Effect of hemostatic risk factors on the individual probability of thrombosis during pregnancy and the puerperium. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 90, 77-85.
29. Ginsberg, J.S., Brill-Edwards, P., Burrows, R.F., Bona, R., Prandoni, P., Buller, H.R. & Lensing, A. (1992) Venous thrombosis during pregnancy: leg and trimester of presentation. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 67, 519-520.
30. Ginsberg, J.S., Greer, I. & Hirsh, J. (2001) Use of antithrombotic agents during pregnancy. Chest, 119, 122S-131S.
31. Grady, D., Wenger, N.K., Herrington, D., Khan, S., Furberg, C., Hunninghake, D., Vittinghoff, E. & Hulley, S. (2000) Post-menopausal hormone therapy increases risk for venous thromboembolic disease. The Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 132, 689-696.
32. Grandone, E., Margaglione, M., Colaizzo, D., D'Andrea, G., Cappucci, G., Brancaccio, V. & Di Minno, G. (1998) Genetic susceptibility to pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism: roles of factor V Leiden, prothrombin G20210A, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T mutations. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 179, 1324-1328.
33. Grodstein, F., Stampfer, M.J., Goldhaber, S.Z., Manson, J.E., Colditz, G.A., Speizer, F.E., Willett, W.C. & Hennekens, C.H. (1996) Prospective study of exogenous hormones and risk of pulmonary embolism in women. Lancet, 348, 983-987.
34. Hallak, M., Senderowicz, J., Cassel, A., Shapira, C., Aghai, E., Auslender, R. & Abramovici, H. (1997) Activated protein C resistance (factor V Leiden) associated with thrombosis in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 176, 889-893.
35. Hellgren, M., Svensson, P.J. & Dahlback, B. (1995) Resistance to activated protein C as a basis for venous thromboembolism associated with pregnancy and oral contraceptives. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 173, 210-213.
36. Herings, R.M., Urquhart, J. & Leufkens, H.G. (1999) Venous thromboembolism among new users of different oral contraceptives. Lancet, 354, 127-128.
37. Herrington, D.M., Vittinghoff, E., Lin, F., Fong, J., Harris, F., Hunninghake, D., Bittner, V., Schrott, H.G., Blumenthal, R.S. & Levy, R. (2002a) Statin therapy, cardiovascular events, and total mortality in the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS). Circulation, 105, 2962-2967.
38. Herrington, D.M., Vittinghoff, E., Howard, T.D., Major, D.A., Owen, J., Reboussin, D.M., Bowden, D., Bittner, V., Simon, J.A., Grady, D. & Hulley, S.B. (2002b) Factor V Leiden, hormone replacement therapy, and risk of venous thromboembolic events in women with coronary disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 22, 1012-1017.
39. Hirsch, D.R., Mikkola, K.M., Marks, P.W., Fox, E.A., Dorfman, D.M., Ewenstein, B.M. & Goldhaber, S.Z. (1996) Pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis during pregnancy or oral contraceptive use: prevalence of factor V Leiden. American Heart Journal, 131, 1145-1148.
40. Hoibraaten, E., Abdelnoor, M. & Sandset, P.M. (1999) Hormone replacement therapy with estradiol and risk of venous thromboembolism - a population-based case-control study. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 82, 1218-1221.
41. Hoibraaten, E., Qvigstad, E., Arnesen, H., Larsen, S., Wickstrom, E. & Sandset, P.M. (2000) Increased risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism during hormone replacement therapy - results of the randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled estrogen in venous thromboembolism trial (EVTET). Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 84, 961-967.
42. Hulley, S., Grady, D., Bush, T., Furberg, C., Herrington, D., Riggs, B. & Vittinghoff, E. (1998) Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in post-menopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 605-613.
43. van Hylckama Vlieg, A. & Rosendaal, F.R. (2003) Interaction between oral contraceptive use and coagulation factor levels in deep venous thrombosis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 1, 2186-2190.
44. Jick, H., Jick, S.S., Gurewich, V., Myers, M.W. & Vasilakis, C. (1995) Risk of idiopathic cardiovascular death and nonfatal venous thromboembolism in women using oral contraceptives with differing progestagen components. Lancet, 346, 1589-1593.
45. Jick, H., Derby, L.E., Myers, M.W., Vasilakis, C. & Newton, K.M. (1996) Risk of hospital admission for idiopathic venous thromboembolism among users of postmenopausal oestrogens. Lancet, 348, 981-983.
46. Jick, H., Kaye, J.A., Vasilakis-Scaramozza, C. & Jick, S.S. (2000) Risk of venous thromboembolism among users of third generation oral contraceptives compared with users of oral contraceptives with levonorgestrel before and after 1995: cohort and case-control analysis. British Medical Journal 321, 1190-1195.
47. Jordan, W.M. (1961) Pulmonary embolism. Lancet, 2, 1146-1147.
48. Kemmeren, J.M., Algra, A. & Grobbee, D.E. (2001) Third generation oral contraceptives and risk of venous thrombosis: meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 323, 131-134.
49. Kjellberg, U., Andersson, N.E., Rosen, S., Tengborn, L. & Hellgren, M. (1999) APC resistance and other haemostatic variables during pregnancy and puerperium. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 81, 527-531.
50. Kluft, C. & Lansink, M. (1997) Effect of oral contraceptives on haemostasis variables. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 78, 315-326.
51. Koster, T., Blann, A.D., Briet, E., Vandenbroucke, J.P. & Rosendaal, F.R. (1995) Role of clotting factor VIII in effect of von Willebrand factor on occurrence of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet, 345, 152-155.
52. Legnani, C., Palareti, G., Guazzaloca, G., Cosmi, B., Lunghi, B., Bernardi, F. & Coccheri, S. (2002a) Venous thromboembolism in young women; role of thrombophilic mutations and oral contraceptive use. European Heart Journal, 23, 984-990.
53. Legnani, C., Cosimi, A.B., Valdre, L., Boggian, O., Bernardi, F., Coccheri, S. & Palareti, G. (2002b) Venous thromboembolism, oral contraceptives and high prothrombin levels. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 1, 112-117.
54. Lensen, R.P., Bertina, R.M., de Ronde, H., Vandenbroucke, J.P. & Rosendaal, F.R. (2000a) Venous thrombotic risk in family members of unselected individuals with factor V Leiden. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 83, 817-821.
55. Lensen, R., Rosendaal, F., Vandenbroucke, J. & Bertina, R. (2000b) Factor V Leiden: the venous thrombotic risk in thrombophilic families. British Journal of Haematology, 110, 939-945.
56. Lindqvist, P., Dahlback, B. & Marsal, K. (1999a) Thrombotic risk during pregnancy: a population study. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 94, 595-599.
57. Lindqvist, P.G., Svensson, P.J., Marsaal, K., Grennert, L., Luterkort, M. & Dahlback, B. (1999b) Activated protein C resistance (FV:Q506) and pregnancy. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 81, 532-537.
58. Lowe, G., Woodward, M., Vessey, M., Rumley, A., Gough, P. & Daly, E. (2000) Thrombotic variables and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism in women aged 45-64 years. Relationships to hormone replacement therapy. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 83, 530-535.
59. Lowe, G.D., Upton, M.N., Rumley, A., McConnachie, A., O'Reilly, D.S. & Watt, G.C. (2001) Different effects of oral and transdermal hormone replacement therapies on factor IX, APC resistance, t-PA, PAI and C-reactive protein - a cross-sectional population survey. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 86, 550-556.
60. Mackie, I.J., Piegsa, K., Furs, S.A., Johnson, J., Bounds, W., Machin, S.J. & Guillebaud, J. (2001) Protein S levels are lower in women receiving desogestrel-containing combined oral contraceptives (COCs) than in women receiving levonorgestrel-containing COCs at steady state and on cross-over. British Journal of Haematology, 113, 898-904.
61. Martinelli, I. (2001) Risk factors in venous thromboembolism. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 86, 395-403.
62. Martinelli, I., Sacchi, E., Landi, G., Taioli, E., Duca, F. & Mannucci, P.M. (1998) High risk of cerebral-vein thrombosis in carriers of a prothrombin-gene mutation and in users of oral contraceptives. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 1793-1797.
63. Martinelli, I., Taioli, E., Bucciarelli, P., Akhavan, S. & Mannucci, P.M. (1999) Interaction between the G20210A mutation of the prothrombin gene and oral contraceptive use in deep vein thrombosis. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 19, 700-703.
64. Martinelli, I., Bucciarelli, P., Margaglione, M., De Stefano, V., Castaman, G. & Mannucci, P.M. (2000) The risk of venous thromboembolism in family members with mutations in the genes of factor V or prothrombin or both. British Journal of Haematology, 111, 1223-1229.
65. Martinelli, I., Legnani, C., Bucciarelli, P., Grandone, E., De Stefano, V. & Mannucci, P.M. (2001) Risk of pregnancy-related venous thrombosis in carriers of severe inherited thrombophilia. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 86, 800-803.
66. Martinelli, I., De Stefano, V., Taioli, E., Paciaroni, K., Rossi, E. & Mannucci, P.M. (2002) Inherited thrombophilia and first venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and puerperium. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 87, 791-795.
67. Martinelli, I., Taioli, E., Battaglioli, T., Podda, G.M., Passamonti, S.M., Pedotti, P. & Mannucci, P.M. (2003a) Risk of venous thromboembolism after air travel: interaction with thrombophilia and oral contraceptives. Archives of Internal Medicine, 163, 2771-2774.
68. Martinelli, I., Battaglioli, T., Pedotti, P., Cattaneo, M. & Mannucci, P.M. (2003b) Hyperhomocysteinemia in cerebral vein thrombosis. Blood, 102, 1363-1366.
69. McColl, M.D., Ramsay, J.E., Tait, R.C., Walker, I.D., McCall, F., Conkie, J.A., Carty, M.J. & Greer, I.A. (1997) Risk factors for pregnancy associated venous thromboembolism. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 78, 1183-1188.
70. McDonald, C.C., Alexander, F.E., Whyte, B.W., Forrest, A.P. & Stewart, H.J. (1995) Cardiac and vascular morbidity in women receiving adjuvant tamoxifen for breast cancer in a randomised trial. The Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group. British Medical Journal, 311, 977-980.
71. Meglic, L., Stegnar, M., Milanez, T., Bozic, M., Peterlin, B., Peternel, P. & Novak-Antolic, Z. (2003) Factor V Leiden, prothrombin 20210G->A, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase 677C -> T and plasminogen activator inhibitor 4G/5G polymorphism in women with pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 111, 157-163.
72. Meier, C.R. & Jick, H. (1998) Tamoxifen and risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 45, 608-612.
73. Middeldorp, S., Libourel, E.J., Hamulyak, K., Van der Meer, J. & Buller, H.R. (2001) The risk of pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism in women who are homozygous for factor V Leiden. British Journal of Haematology, 113, 553-555.
74. Miller, J., Chan, B.K. & Nelson, H.D. (2002) Postmenopausal estrogen replacement and risk for venous thromboembolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Annals of Internal Medicine, 136, 680-690.
75. Mosca, L., Collins, P., Herrington, D.M., Mendelsohn, M.E., Pasternak, R.C., Robertson, R.M., Schenck-Gustafsson, K., Smith, S.C., Jr, Taubert, K.A. & Wenger, N.K. (2001) Hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 104, 499-503.
76. Oger, E., Alhenc-Gelas, M., Lacut, K., Blouch, M.T., Roudaut, N., Kerlan, V., Collet, M., Abgrall, J.F., Aiach, M., Scarabin, P.Y. & Mottier, D. (2003) Differential effects of oral and transdermal estrogen/progesterone regimens on sensitivity to activated protein C among postmenopausal women: a randomized trial. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 23, 1671-1676.
77. Ogunyemi, D., Cuellar, F., Ku, W. & Arkel, Y. (2003) Association between inherited thrombophilias, antiphospholipid antibodies, and lipoprotein A levels and venous thromboembolism in pregnancy. American Journal of Perinatology, 20, 17-24.
78. Pabinger, I. & Schneider, B. (1994) Thrombotic risk of women with hereditary antithrombin III-, protein C- and protein S-deficiency taking oral contraceptive medication. The GTH Study Group on Natural Inhibitors. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 71, 548-552.
79. Pabinger, I., Nemes, L., Rintelen, C., Koder, S., Lechler, E., Loreth, R.M., Kyrle, P.A., Scharrer, I., Sas, G., Lechner, K., Mannhalter, C. & Ehrenforth, S. (2000) Pregnancy-associated risk for venous thromboembolism and pregnancy outcome in women homozygous for factor V Leiden. Hematology Journal, 1, 37-41.
80. Pabinger, I., Grafenhofer, H., Kyrle, P.A., Quehenberger, P., Mannhalter, C., Lechner, K. & Kaider, A. (2002) Temporary increase in the risk for recurrence during pregnancy in women with a history of venous thromboembolism. Blood, 100, 1060-1062.
81. Perez Gutthann, S., Garcia Rodriguez, L.A., Castellsague, J. & Duque Oliart, A. (1997) Hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism: population based case-control study. British Medical Journal, 314, 796-800.
82. Poort, S.R., Rosendaal, F.R., Reitsma, P.H. & Bertina, R.M. (1996) A common genetic variation in the 3′-untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increase in venous thrombosis. Blood, 88, 3698-3703.
83. Post, M.S., Christella, M., Thomassen, L.G., Van Der Mooren, M.J., Van Baal, W.M., Rosing, J., Kenemans, P. & Stehouwer, C.D. (2003) Effect of oral and transdermal estrogen replacement therapy on hemostatic variables associated with venous thrombosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled study in postmenopausal women. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 23, 1116-1121.
84. Poulter, N.R., Chang, C.L., Farley, T.M. & Meirik, O. (1999) Risk of cardiovascular diseases associated with oral progestagen preparations with therapeutic indications. Lancet, 354, 1610.
85. Press, R.D., Bauer, K.A., Kujovich, J.L. & Heit, J.A. (2002) Clinical utility of factor V Leiden (R506Q) testing for the diagnosis and management of thromboembolic disorders. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 126, 1304-1318.
86. Pritchard, K.I., Paterson, A.H., Paul, N.A., Zee, B., Fine, S. & Pater, J. (1996) Increased thromboembolic complications with concurrent tamoxifen and chemotherapy in a randomized trial of adjuvant therapy for women with breast cancer. National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group Breast Cancer Site Group. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 14, 2731-2737.
87. Ray, J.G. & Chan, W.S. (1999) Deep vein thrombosis during pregnancy and the puerperium: a meta-analysis of the period of risk and the leg of presentation. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey, 54, 265-271.
88. Riggs, B.L. & Hartmann, L.C. (2003) Selective estrogen-receptor modulators - mechanisms of action and application to clinical practice. New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 618-629.
89. Rintelen, C., Mannhalter, C., Ireland, H., Lane, D.A., Knobl, P., Lechner, K. & Pabinger, I. (1996) Oral contraceptives enhance the risk of clinical manifestation of venous thrombosis at a young age in females homozygous for factor V Leiden. British Journal of Haematology, 93, 487-490.
90. Rodeghiero, F. & Tosetto, A. (1999) Activated protein C resistance and factor V Leiden mutation are independent risk factors for venous thromboembolism. Annals of Internal Medicine, 130, 643-650.
91. Rosendaal, F.R., Helmerhorst, F.M. & Vandenbroucke, J.P. (2002a) Female hormones and thrombosis. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 22, 201-210.
92. Rosendaal, F.R., Vessey, M., Rumley, A., Daly, E., Woodward, M., Helmerhorst, F.M. & Lowe, G.D. (2002b) Hormonal replacement therapy, prothrombotic mutations and the risk of venous thrombosis. British Journal of Haematology, 116, 851-854.
93. Rosenson, R.S. & Tangney, C.C. (1998) Andatherothrombotic properties of statins: implications for cardiovascular event reduction. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 1643-1650.
94. Rosing, J., Tans, G., Nicolaes, G.A., Thomassen, M.C., van Oerle, R., van der Ploeg, P.M., Heijnen, P., Hamulyak, K. & Hemker, H.C. (1997) Oral contraceptives and venous thrombosis: different sensitivities to activated protein C in women using second- and third-generation oral contraceptives. British Journal of Haematology, 97, 233-238.
95. Rosing, J., Middeldorp, S., Curvers, J., Christella, M., Thomassen, L.G., Nicolaes, G.A., Meijers, J.C., Bouma, B.N., Buller, H.R., Prins, M.H. & Tans, G. (1999) Low-dose oral contraceptives and acquired resistance to activated protein C: a randomised cross-over study. Lancet, 354, 2036-2040.
96. Rossouw, J.E., Anderson, G.L., Prentice, R.L., LaCroix, A.Z., Kooperberg, C., Stefanick, M.L., Jackson, R.D., Beresford, S.A., Howard, B.V., Johnson, K.C., Kotchen, J.M. & Ockene, J. (2002) Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 321-333.
97. Samama, M.M., Rached, R.A., Horellou, M.H., Aquilanti, S., Mathieux, V.G., Plu-Bureau, G., Elalamy, I. & Conard, J. (2003) Pregnancy-associated venous thromboembolism (VTE) in combined heterozygous factor V Leiden (FVL) and prothrombin (FII) 20210 A mutation and in heterozygous FII single gene mutation alone. British Journal of Haematology, 123, 327-334.
98. Santamaria, A., Mateo, J., Oliver, A., Menendez, B., Souto, J.C., Borrell, M., Soria, J.M., Tirado, I. & Fontcuberta, J. (2001) Risk of thrombosis associated with oral contraceptives of women from 97 families with inherited thrombophilia: high risk of thrombosis in carriers of the G20210A mutation of the prothrombin gene. Haematologica, 86, 965-971.
99. Scarabin, P.Y., Alhenc-Gelas, M., Plu-Bureau, G., Taisne, P., Agher, R. & Aiach, M. (1997) Effects of oral and transdermal estrogen/progesterone regimens on blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in post-menopausal women. A randomized controlled trial. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 17, 3071-3078.
100. Scarabin, P.Y., Oger, E. & Plu-Bureau, G. (2003) Differential association of oral and transdermal oestrogen-replacement therapy with venous thromboembolism risk. Lancet, 362, 428-432.
101. Schambeck, C.M., Schwender, S., Haubitz, I., Geisen, U.E., Grossmann, R.E. & Keller, F. (1997) Selective screening for the factor V Leiden mutation: is it advisable prior to the prescription of oral contraceptives? Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 78, 1480-1483.
102. Simioni, P., Sanson, B.J., Prandoni, P., Tormene, D., Friederich, P.W., Girolami, B., Gavasso, S., Huisman, M.V., Buller, H.R., Wouter ten Cate, I., Girolami, A. & Prins, M.H. (1999) Incidence of venous thromboembolism in families with inherited thrombophilia. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 81, 198-202.
103. Spannagl, M., Heinemann, L.A. & Schramm, W. (2000) Are factor V Leiden carriers who use oral contraceptives at extreme risk for venous thromboembolism? The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 5, 105-112.
104. Tans, G., Curvers, J., Middeldorp, S., Thomassen, M.C., Meijers, J.C., Prins, M.H., Bouma, B.N., Buller, H.R. & Rosing, J. (2000) A randomized cross-over study on the effects of levonorgestrel- and desogestrel-containing oral contraceptives on the anticoagulant pathways. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 84, 15-21.
105. Trauscht-Van Horn, J.J., Capeless, E.L., Easterling, T.R. & Bovill, E.G. (1992) Pregnancy loss and thrombosis with protein C deficiency. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 167, 968-972.
106. Vandenbroucke, J.P., Koster, T., Briet, E., Reitsma, P.H., Bertina, R.M. & Rosendaal, F.R. (1994) Increased risk of venous thrombosis in oral-contraceptive users who are carriers of factor V Leiden mutation. Lancet, 344, 1453-1457.
107. Vandenbroucke, J.P., Rosing, J., Bloemenkamp, K.W., Middeldorp, S., Helmerhorst, P.M., Bouma, B.N. & Rosendaal, F.R. (2001) Oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thrombosis. New England Journal of Medicine, 344, 1527-1535.
108. Varas-Lorenzo, C., Garcia-Rodriguez, L.A., Cattaruzzi, C., Troncon, M.G., Agostinis, L. & Perez-Gutthann, S. (1998) Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of hospitalization for venous thromboembolism: a population-based study in southern Europe. American Journal of Epidemiology, 147, 387-390.
109. Vasilakis, C., Jick, H. & del Mar Melero-Montes, M. (1999) Risk of idiopathic venous thromboembolism in users of progestagens alone. Lancet, 354, 1610-1611.
110. Vasilakis-Scaramozza, C. & Jick, H. (2001) Risk of venous thromboembolism with cyproterone or levonorgestrel contraceptives. Lancet, 358, 1427-1429.
111. Veronesi, U., Maisonneuve, P., Costa, A., Sacchini, V., Maltoni, C., Robertson, C., Rotmensz, N. & Boyle, P. (1998) Prevention of breast cancer with tamoxifen: preliminary findings from the Italian randomised trial among hysterectomised women. Italian Tamoxifen Prevention Study. Lancet, 352, 93-97.
112. de Visser, M.C., Rosendaal, F.R. & Bertina, R.M. (1999) A reduced sensitivity for activated protein C in the absence of factor V Leiden increases the risk of venous thrombosis. Blood, 93, 1271-1276.
113. Weitz, I.C., Israel, V.K. & Liebman, H.A. (1997) Tamoxifen-associated venous thrombosis and activated protein C resistance due to factor V Leiden. Cancer, 79, 2024-2027.
114. World Health Organization (1995) Venous thromboembolic disease and combined oral contraceptives: results of international multicentre case-control study. World Health Organization Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Lancet, 346, 1575-1582.
115. World Health Organization (1998a) Cardiovascular disease and steroid hormone contraception. Report of a WHO Scientific Group. World Health Organization Technical Report Series, 877, i-vii, 1-89.
116. World Health Organization (1998b) Cardiovascular disease and use of oral and injectable progestogen-only contraceptives and combined injectable contraceptives. Results of an international, multicenter, case-control study. World Health Organization Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Contraception, 57, 315-324.