Dissociation between key processes of social cognition in autism: Impaired mentalizing but intact sense of agency

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Volumn 38, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 593-605

  David, Nicole ^a   Gawronski, Astrid ^a   Santos, Natacha S ^a   Huff, Wolfgang ^a   Lehnhardt, Fritz Georg ^a   Newen, Albert ^b   Vogeley, Kai ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^b RUHR UNIVERSITY BOCHUM   (Germany)

Author keywords

Action monitoring; Asperger syndrome; High functioning autism; Mentalizing; Self other distinction; Sense of agency

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ASPERGER SYNDROME; AUTISM; CLINICAL ARTICLE; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT; CONTROLLED STUDY; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE; MALE; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL FUNCTION; MENTAL HEALTH; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SOCIAL INTERACTION; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; TASK PERFORMANCE;

ADULT; ASPERGER SYNDROME; AUTISTIC DISORDER; AWARENESS; COGNITION DISORDERS; FEMALE; HUMANS; JUDGMENT; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; REACTION TIME; SELF CONCEPT; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SOCIAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 41049088187     PISSN: 01623257     EISSN: 15733432     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-007-0425-x     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Abu-Akel, A., & Bailey, A. L. (2000). The possibility of different forms of theory of mind impairment in psychiatric and developmental disorders. Psychological Medicine, 30(3), 735-738.
2. Aldridge, M. A., Stone, K. R., Sweeney, M. H., & Bower, T. G. R. (2000). Preverbal children with autism understand the intentions of others. Developmental Science, 3, 294-301.
3. Allen, G., & Courchesne, E. (2003). Differential effects of developmental cerebellar abnormality on cognitive and motor functions in the cerebellum: An fMRI study of autism. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(2), 262-273.
4. Allen, G., Muller, R. A., & Courchesne, E. (2004). Cerebellar function in autism: Functional magnetic resonance image activation during a simple motor task. Biological Psychiatry, 56(4), 269-278.
5. American Psychological Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistics manual of mental disorders, DSM-IV (4th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
6. Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Mindblindness-An essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.
7. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Hill, J. (2001a). The 'reading the mind in the eyes' test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 241-252.
8. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001b). The autism spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 5-17.
9. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1987). Beck depression inventory-Manual. San Antonio: The Psychological Association.
10. Bertone, A., Mottron, L., Jelenic, P., & Faubert, J. (2003). Motion perception in autism: A "complex" issue. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15(2), 218-225.
11. Blakemore, S. J., Boyer, P., Pachot-Clouard, M., Meltzoff, A., Segebarth, C., & Decety, J. (2003). The detection of contingency and animacy from simple animations in the human brain. Cerebral Cortex, 13(8), 837-844.
12. Blakemore, S. J., Frith, C. D., & Wolpert, D. M. (2001). The cerebellum is involved in predicting the sensory consequences of action. Neuroreport, 12(9), 1879-1884.
13. Blakemore, S. J., Rees, G., & Frith, C. D. (1998). How do we predict the consequences of our actions? A functional imaging study. Neuropsychologia, 36(6), 521-529.
14. Blakemore, S. J., Smith, J., Steel, R., Johnstone, C. E., & Frith, C. D. (2000a). The perception of self-produced sensory stimuli in patients with auditory hallucinations and passivity experiences: Evidence for a breakdown in self-monitoring. Psychological Medicine, 30(5), 1131-1139.
15. Blakemore, S. J., Tavassoli, T., Calo, S., Thomas, R. M., Catmur, C., Frith, U., et al. (2006). Tactile sensitivity in asperger syndrome. Brain Cognition, 61(1), 5-13.
16. Blakemore, S. J., Wolpert, D., & Frith, C. (2000b). Why can't you tickle yourself? Neuroreport, 11(11), R11-R16.
17. Blakemore, S. J., Wolpert, D. M., & Frith, C. D. (1998). Central cancellation of self-produced tickle sensation. Nature Neuroscience, 1(7), 635-640.
18. Bram, S., & Meir, M. (1977). A relationship between motor control and language development in an autistic child. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 7(1), 57-67.
19. Brickenkamp, R. (1994). Test d2. Aufmerksamkeits-belastungs-test. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
20. Brock, J., Brown, C. C., Boucher, J., & Rippon, G. (2002). The temporal binding deficit hypothesis of autism. Development and Psychopathology, 14(2), 209-224.
21. Brunet, E., Sarfati, Y., Hardy-Bayle, M. C., & Decety, J. (2003). Abnormalities of brain function during a nonverbal theory of mind task in schizophrenia. Neuropsychologia, 41(12), 1574-1582.
22. Carpenter, M., Nagell, K., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63(4), 1-143.
23. Clower, D. M., & Boussaoud, D. (2000). Selective use of perceptual recalibration versus visuomotor skill acquisition. Journal of Neurophysiology, 84(5), 2703-2708.
24. Daprati, E., Franck, N., Georgieff, N., Proust, J., Pacherie, E., Dalery, J., et al. (1997). Looking for the agent: An investigation into consciousness of action and self-consciousness in schizophrenic patients. Cognition, 65(1), 71-86.
25. Dapretto, M., Davies, M. S., Pfeifer, J. H., Scott, A. A., Sigman, M., Bookheimer, S. Y., et al. (2006). Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Neuroscience, 9(1), 28-30.
26. David, N., Cohen, M. X., Newen, A., Bewernick, B. H., Shah, N. J., Fink, G. R., et al. (2007a). The extrastriate body area distinguishes between the consequences of one's own and others' behavior. NeuroImage, 36(3), 1004-1014.
27. David, N., Jansen, M., Cohen, M. X, Osswald, K., Molnar-Szakacs, I., Newen, A., et al. (2007b). Disturbances of self-other distinction after stimulation of the extrastriate body area in the human brain. Social Neuroscience.
28. Decety, J., & Chaminade, T. (2003). When the self represents the other: A new cognitive neuroscience view on psychological identification. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(4), 577-596
29. de Vignemont, F., & Fourneret, P. (2004). The sense of agency: A philosophical and empirical review of the "who" system. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(1), 1-19.
30. Ehlers, S., & Gillberg, C. (1993). The epidemiology of Asperger syndrome. A total population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(8), 1327-1350.
31. Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Pavesi, G., & Rizzolatti, G. (1995). Motor facilitation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study. Journal of Neurophysiology, 73(6), 2608-2611.
32. Farrant, A., Blades, M., & Boucher, J. (1998). Source monitoring by children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(1), 43-50.
33. Farrer, C., & Frith, C. D. (2002). Experiencing oneself versus another person as being the cause of an action: The neural correlates of the experience of agency. NeuroImage, 15(3), 596-603.
34. Fletcher, P., Happé, F., Frith, U., Baker, S., Dolan, R., Frackowiak, R., et al. (1995). Other minds in the brain: A functional imaging study of 'theory of mind' in story comprehension. Cognition, 57, 109-128.
35. Fourneret, P., & Jeannerod, M. (1998). Limited conscious monitoring of motor performance in normal subjects. Neuropsychologia, 36(11), 1133-1140.
36. Franck, N., Farrer, C., Georgieff, N., Marie-Cardine, M., Dalery, J., d'Amato, T., et al. (2001). Defective recognition of one's own actions in patients with schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(3), 454-459.
37. Frith, C. D. (2004). Schizophrenia and theory of mind. Psychological Medicine, 34(3), 385-389.
38. Frith, U., & de Vignemont, F. (2005). Egocentrism, allocentrism, and Asperger syndrome. Consciousness and Cognition, 14(4), 719-738.
39. Frith, C. D., & Done, D. J. (1989). Experiences of alien control in schizophrenia reflect a disorder in the central monitoring of action. Psychological Medicine, 19(2), 359-363.
40. Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (1999). Interacting minds-A biological basis. Science, 286(5445), 1692-1695.
41. Frith, C. D., & Johnstone, E. C. (2003). Schizophrenia-A very short introduction (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
42. Gallagher, S. (2000). Philosophical conceptions of the self: Implications for cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(1), 14-21.
43. Georgieff, N., & Jeannerod, M. (1998). Beyond consciousness of external reality: A "who" system for consciousness of action and self-consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition, 7(3), 465-477.
44. Goldman, A. I. (1989). Interpretation psychologized. Mind and Language, 4, 161-185.
45. Green, D., Baird, G., Barnett, A. L., Henderson, L., Huber, J., & Henderson, S. E. (2002). The severity and nature of motor impairment in Asperger's syndrome: A comparison with specific developmental disorder of motor function. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(5), 655-668.
46. Hamilton, A. F., Brindley, R. M., & Frith, U. (2007). Imitation and action understanding in autistic spectrum disorders: How valid is the hypothesis of a deficit in the mirror neuron system? Neuropsychologia, 45(8), 1859-1868.
47. Happé, F. G. (1994). An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters' thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(2), 129-154.
48. Happé, F., Ehlers, S., Fletcher, P., Frith, U., Johansson, M., Gillberg, C., et al. (1996). "Theory of mind" in the brain. Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger syndrome. Neuroreport, 8(1), 197-201.
49. Hautzinger, M., Bailer, M., Worall, H., & Keller, F. (1995). Beck-depressions-inventar (BDI), Testhandbuch (2nd ed.). Bern: Hans Huber.
50. Heider, F., & Simmel, M. (1944). An experimental study of apparent behavior. The American Journal of Psychology, 57, 243-259.
51. Hermelin, B., & O'Connor, N. (1975). Location and distance estimates by blind and sighted children. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27(2), 295-301.
52. Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(1), 26-32.
53. Hill, E. L., & Russell, J. (2002). Action memory and self-monitoring in children with autism: Self versus other. Infant and Child Development, 11, 159-170.
54. Hobson, R. P., & Lee, A. (1999). Imitation and identification in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(4), 649-659.
55. Horn, W. (1983). Leistungsprüfsystem (lps), Handanweisung (2nd ed.). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
56. Iarocci, G., & McDonald, J. (2006). Sensory integration and the perceptual experience of persons with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(1), 77-90.
57. Ihnen, G. H., Penn, D. L., Corrigan, P. W., & Martin, J. (1998). Social perception and social skill in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 80(3), 275-286.
58. Jeannerod, M., & Pacherie, E. (2004). Agency, simulation and self-identification. Mind & Language, 19, 113-146.
59. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). The strange stories test: A replication with high-functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(5), 395-406.
60. Kaland, N., Moller-Nielsen, A., Smith, L., Mortensen, E. L., Callesen, K., & Gottlieb, D. (2005). The strange stories test-A replication study of children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 14(2), 73-82.
61. Kaland, N., Smith, L., & Mortensen, E. L. (2007). Response times of children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome on an 'advanced' test of theory of mind. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(2), 197-209.
62. Kampe, K. K., Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2003). "Hey John": Signals conveying communicative intention toward the self activate brain regions associated with "mentalizing," regardless of modality. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23(12), 5258-5263.
63. Kircher, T. T., & Leube, D. T. (2003). Self-consciousness, self-agency, and schizophrenia. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(4), 656-669.
64. Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., & Volkmar, F. (2003). The enactive mind, or from actions to cognition: Lessons from autism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 345-360.
65. Klin, A., Volkmar, F. R., Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Rourke, B. P. (1995). Validity and neuropsychological characterization of Asperger syndrome: Convergence with nonverbal learning disabilities syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(7), 1127-1140.
66. Knoblich, G., & Kircher, T. T. (2004). Deceiving oneself about being in control: Conscious detection of changes in visuomotor coupling. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 30(4), 657-666.
67. Konstantareas, M. M., & Hewitt, T. (2001). Autistic disorder and schizophrenia: Diagnostic overlaps. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 19-28.
68. Langdon, R., & Coltheart, M. (2001). Visual perspective-taking and schizotypy: Evidence for a simulation-based account of mentalizing in normal adults. Cognition, 82(1), 1-26.
69. Langdon, R., Coltheart, M., & Ward, P. B. (2006). Empathetic perspective-taking is impaired in schizophrenia: Evidence from a study of emotion attribution and theory of mind. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 11(2), 133-155.
70. Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
71. Manjiviona, J., & Prior, M. (1995). Comparison of Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autistic children on a test of motor impairment. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(1), 23-39.
72. McAlonan, G. M., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Suckling, J., Lam, G. Y., Tai, K. S., et al. (2005). Mapping the brain in autism. A voxel-based MRI study of volumetric differences and intercorrelations in autism. Brain, 128(Pt 2), 268-276.
73. Meltzoff, A. N. (1999). Origins of theory of mind, cognition and communication. Journal of Communication Disorders, 32(4), 251-269.
74. Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2003). What imitation tells us about social cognition: A rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358(1431), 491-500.
75. Meltzoff, A. N., & Gopnik, A. (1993). The role of imitation in understanding persons, developing a theory of mind. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from autism (pp. 335-366). New York: Oxford University Press.
76. Milne, E., White, S., Campbell, R., Swettenham, J., Hansen, P., & Ramus, F. (2006). Motion and form coherence detection in autistic spectrum disorder: Relationship to motor control and 2:4 digit ratio. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(2), 225-237.
77. Nadel, J. (2004). Early imitation and the emergence of a sense of agency. Paper presented at the 4th International Workshop on Epigenetic Robotics: Modeling Cognitive Development in Robotic Systems, Genoa, Italy.
78. Newcombe, N. (1989). The development of spatial perspective taking. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 22, 203-247.
79. Nielsen, T. (1963). Volition: A new experimental approach. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 4, 225-230.
80. Oberman, L. M., Hubbard, E. M., McCleery, J. P., Altschuler, E. L., Ramachandran, V. S., & Pineda, J. A. (2005). EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(2), 190-198.
81. Oldfield, R. C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia, 9, 97-113.
82. Ozonoff, S. (1995). Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin card sorting test in studies with autism. Neuropsychology, 9, 491-500.
83. Pacherie, E. (1997). Motor images, self-consciousness and autism. In J. Russel (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 215-255). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
84. Pacherie, E., & Jeannerod, M. (2004). Agency, simulation and self-identification. Mind and Language, 19, 113-146.
85. Perner, J. (1993). Understanding the representational mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.
86. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1967). The coordination of perspectives. In The child's conception of space (pp. 209-246). New York: Norton & Co.
87. Pinkham, A. E., Penn, D. L., Perkins, D. O., & Lieberman, J. (2003). Implications for the neural basis of social cognition for the study of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(5), 815-824.
88. Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 4, 515-526.
89. Ramnani, N., & Miall, R. C. (2004). A system in the human brain for predicting the actions of others. Nature Neuroscience, 7(1), 85-90.
90. Reed, T., & Peterson, C. (1990). A comparative study of autistic subjects' performance at two levels of visual and cognitive perspective taking. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20(4), 555-567.
91. Reitan, R. M. (1958). Validity of the trailmaking test as an indication of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8, 271-276.
92. Remschmidt, H., & Kamp-Becker, I. (2006). Asperger-Syndrome. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.
93. Rilling, J. K., Sanfey, A. G., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The neural correlates of theory of mind within interpersonal interactions. Neuroimage, 22(4), 1694-1703.
94. Rizzolatti, G., Fadiga, L., Gallese, V., & Fogassi, L. (1996). Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 3(2), 131-141.
95. Rogers, S. J., Bennetto, L., McEvoy, R., & Pennington, B. F. (1996). Imitation and pantomime in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Child Development, 67(5), 2060-2073.
96. Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S. L., Stackhouse, T., & Wehner, E. (2003). Imitation performance in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(5), 763-781.
97. Russell, J., & Hill, E. L. (2001). Action-monitoring and intention reporting in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(3), 317-328.
98. Russell, J., & Jarrold, C. (1998). Error-correction problems in autism: Evidence for a monitoring impairment? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(3), 177-188.
99. Russell, J., & Jarrold, C. (1999). Memory for actions in children with autism: Self versus other. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 4(4), 303-331.
100. Russell, J. (1996). Agency: Its role in mental development. Hove: Psychology Press.
101. Russell, J. (1997). Autism as an executive disorder. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
102. Rutherford, M. D., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2002). Reading the mind in the voice: A study with normal adults and adults with asperger syndrome and high functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(3), 189-194.
103. Scharfetter, C. (1995). Schizophrene Menschen. Weinheim, New York: Beltz-Verlag.
104. Sebanz, N., Knoblich, G., Stumpf, L., & Prinz, W. (2005). Far from action-blind: Representation of others' actions in individuals with autism. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22, 433-454.
105. Sigman, M., Dijamco, A., Gratier, M., & Rozga, A. (2004). Early detection of core deficits in autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10(4), 221-233.
106. Slachevsky, A., Pillon, B., Fourneret, P., Pradat-Diehl, P., Jeannerod, M., & Dubois, B. (2001). Preserved adjustment but impaired awareness in a sensory-motor conflict following prefrontal lesions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13(3), 332-340.
107. Spence, S. A., Brooks, D. J., Hirsch, S. R., Liddle, P. F., Meehan, J., & Grasby, P. M. (1997). A pet study of voluntary movement in schizophrenic patients experiencing passivity phenomena (delusions of alien control). Brain, 120(Pt 11), 1997-2011.
108. Spencer, J., O'Brien, J., Riggs, K., Braddick, O., Atkinson, J., & Wattam-Bell, J. (2000). Motion processing in autism: Evidence for a dorsal stream deficiency. Neuroreport, 11(12), 2765-2767.
109. Stewart, M. E., Barnard, L., Pearson, J., Hasan, R., & O'Brien, G. (2006). Presentation of depression in autism and Asperger syndrome: A review. Autism, 10(1), 103-116.
110. Synofzik, M., Vosgerau, G., & Newen, A. (2007). Beyond the compaqrator model: A multifactorial two-step account of agency. Consciousness and Cognition.
111. Tewes, U. (1991). Hamburg-Wechsler Intelligenztest fuer Erwachsene, Revision 1991. Bern: Huber.
112. Tombaugh, T. N. (2004). Trail making test A and B: Normative data stratified by age and education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 203-214.
113. Tsakiris, M., & Haggard, P. (2005). Experimenting with the acting self. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22, 387-407.
114. Turken, A. U., Vuilleumier, P., Mathalon, D. H., Swick, D., & Ford, J. M. (2003). Are impairments of action monitoring and executive control true dissociative dysfunctions in patients with schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(10), 1881-1883.
115. van den Bos, E., & Jeannerod, M. (2002). Sense of body and sense of action both contribute to self-recognition. Cognition, 85(2), 177-187.
116. Vogeley, K., Bussfeld, P., Newen, A., Herrmann, S., Happé, F., Falkai, P., et al. (2001). Mind reading: Neural mechanisms of theory of mind and self-perspective. Neuroimage, 14(1), 170-181.
117. von Holst, E., & Mittelstaedt, H. (1950). Das Reafferenzprinzip. Naturwissenschaften, 37, 464-476.
118. Wegner, D. M., Sparrow, B., & Winerman, L. (2004). Vicarious agency: Experiencing control over the movements of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(6), 838-848.
119. Weimer, A. K., Schatz, A. M., Lincoln, A., Ballantyne, A. O., & Trauner, D. A. (2001). "Motor" impairment in asperger syndrome: Evidence for a deficit in proprioception. Journal of Develpomental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(2), 92-101.
120. Wellman, H. (1990). The child's theory of mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.
121. Williams, J. H., Whiten, A., & Singh, T. (2004). A systematic review of action imitation in autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(3), 285-299.
122. Wolpert, D. M., Ghahramani, Z., & Jordan, M. I. (1995). An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science, 269(5232), 1880-1882.