ASHP therapeutic position statement on the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in adults

American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy

Volumn 65, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 343-357

  MacLaughlin, Eric J ^a   Raehl, Cynthia L ^a  

^a TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY HEALTH SCIENCES CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

American society of health system pharmacists; Diagnosis; Osteoporosis; Pharmacists; Protocols

Indexed keywords

ANABOLIC AGENT; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCITONIN; CALCIUM; ESTROGEN; PARATHYROID HORMONE[1-34]; RALOXIFENE; VITAMIN D;

BONE DENSITY; DRUG INDICATION; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; EVALUATION; FALLING; FRAGILITY FRACTURE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; OSTEOPOROSIS; PATIENT IDENTIFICATION; POSTMENOPAUSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

EID: 39749128416     PISSN: 10792082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2146/ajhp070302     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. National Osteoporosis Foundation. Physician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. www.nof.org/physguide/index.htm (accessed 2005 Mar 23).
2. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA. 2001; 285:785-95.
3. Hodgson SF, Watts NB, Bilezikian JP et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2001 edition, with selected updates for 2003. Endocr Pract. 2003; 9:544-64. [Erratum, Endocr Pract. 2004; 10:90.]
4. Hajcsar EE, Hawker G, Bogoch ER. Investigation and treatment of osteoporosis in patients with fragility fractures. CMAJ. 2000; 163:819-22.
5. Feldstein AC, Nichols GA, Elmer PJ et al. Older women with fractures: patients falling through the cracks of guideline-recommended osteoporosis screening and treatment. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003; 85-A:2294-302.
6. Andrade SE, Majumdar SR, Chan KA et al. Low frequency of treatment of osteoporosis among postmenopausal women following a fracture. Arch Intern Med. 2003; 163:2052-7.
7. Harrington JT, Broy SB, Derosa AM et al. Hip fracture patients are not treated for osteoporosis: a call to action. Arthritis Rheum. 2002; 47:651-4.
8. Solomon DH, Finkelstein JS, Katz JN et al. Underuse of osteoporosis medications in elderly patients with fractures. Am J Med. 2003; 115:398-400.
9. Adler GS, Shatto A. Screening for osteoporosis and colon cancer under Medicare. Health Care Financ Rev. 2002; 23:189-200.
10. National Committee for Quality Assurance. Osteoporosis management in women who had a fracture. In: The state of health care quality, 2005. www.ncqa.org/Docs/SOHCQ_2005.pdf (accessed 2007 Nov 27).
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Institutes of Health. Healthy People 2010: arthritis, osteoporosis, and chronic back conditions. www.healthypeople.gov/Document/HTML/Volume1/02Arthritis.htm (accessed 2006 Jul 11).
12. Chapuy MC, Arlot ME, Duboeuf F et al. Vitamin D3 and calcium to prevent hip fractures in the elderly women. N Engl J Med. 1992; 327:1637-42.
13. Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Krall EA et al. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone density in men and women 65 years of age or older. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337:670-6.
14. Larsen ER, Mosekilde L, Foldspang A. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation prevents osteoporotic fractures in elderly community dwelling residents: a pragmatic population-based 3-year intervention study. J Bone Miner Res. 2004; 19:370-8.
15. Trivedi DP, Doll R, Khaw KT. Effect of four monthly oral vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) supplementation on fractures and mortality in men and women living in the community: randomised double blind controlled trial. BMJ. 2003; 326:469.
16. Tilyard MW, Spears GF, Thomson J et al. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with calcitriol or calcium. N Engl J Med. 1992; 326:357-62.
17. Tang BM, Eslick GD, Nowson C et al. Use of calcium or calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation to prevent fractures and bone loss in people aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2007; 370:657-66.
18. Cummings SR, Black DM, Thompson DE et al. Effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with low bone density but without vertebral fractures: results from the Fracture Intervention Trial. JAMA. 1998; 280:2077-82.
19. Black DM, Cummings SR, Karpf DB et al. Randomised trial of effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with existing vertebral fractures. Lancet. 1996; 348:1535-41.
20. Harris ST, Watts NB, Genant HK et al. Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1999; 282:1344-52.
21. Reginster J, Minne HW, Sorensen OH et al. Randomized trial of the effects of risedronate on vertebral fractures in women with established postmenopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2000; 11:83-91.
22. McClung MR, Geusens P, Miller PD et al. Effect of risedronate on the risk of hip fracture in elderly women. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344:333-40.
23. Chesnut IC, Skag A, Christiansen C et al. Effects of oral ibandronate administered daily or intermittently on fracture risk in postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res. 2004; 19:1241-9.
24. Lyles KW, Colon-Emeric CS, Magaziner JS et al. Zoledronic acid and clinical fractures and mortality after hip fracture. N Engl J Med. 2007; 357:1799-809.
25. Black DM, Delmas PD, Eastell R et al. Once-yearly zoledronic acid for treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2007; 356:1809-22.
26. Chesnut CH 3rd, Silverman S, Andriano K et al. A randomized trial of nasal spray salmon calcitonin in postmenopausal women with established osteoporosis: the Prevent Recurrence Of Osteoporotic Fractures Study. Am J Med. 2000; 109:267-76.
27. Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002; 288:321-33.
28. The Women's Health Initiative Steering Committee. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004; 291:1701-12.
29. Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH et al. Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene: results from a 3-year randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 1999; 282:637-45.
30. Neer RM, Arnaud CD, Zanchetta JR et al. Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344:1434-41.
31. MacLaughlin EJ, MacLaughlin AA, Snella KA et al. Osteoporosis screening and education in community pharmacies using a team approach. Pharmacotherapy. 2005; 25:379-86.
32. Goode JV, Swiger K, Bluml BM. Regional osteoporosis screening, referral, and monitoring program in community pharmacies: findings from Project ImPACT: Osteoporosis. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2004; 44:152-60.
33. Elliott ME, Meek PD, Kanous NL et al. Osteoporosis screening by community pharmacists: use of National Osteoporosis Foundation resources. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002; 42:101-10.
34. Lata PF, Binkley NC, Elliott ME. Acceptability of pharmacy-based bone density measurement by women and primary healthcare providers. Menopause. 2002; 9:449-55.
35. Cerulli J, Zeolla MM. Impact and feasibility of a community pharmacy bone mineral density screening and education program. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2004; 44:161-7.
36. Kanis JA. Diagnosis of osteoporosis and assessment of fracture risk. Lancet. 2002; 359:1929-36.
37. World Health Organization. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: report of a joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. WHO technical report series no. 916. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_916.pdf (accessed 2007 Nov 1).
38. Kanis JA, Gluer CC. An update on the diagnosis and assessment of osteoporosis with densitometry. Osteoporos Int. 2000; 11:192-202.
39. National Osteoporosis Foundation. America's bone health: the state of osteoporosis and low bone mass, 2005. www.nof.org/advocacy/prevalence/index.htm (accessed 2007 Nov 28).
40. National Osteoporosis Foundation. Fast facts. www.nof.org/osteoporosis/ diseasefacts.htm (accessed 2005 Apr 22).
41. Lips P, Cooper C, Agnusdei D et al. Quality of life in patients with vertebral fractures: validation of the Quality of Life Questionnaire of the European Foundation for Osteoporosis (QUALEFFO). Osteoporos Int. 1999; 10:150-60.
42. Gold DT, Shipp KM, Lyles KW. Managing patients with complications of osteoporosis. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1998; 27:485-96.
43. Yamaguchi T, Sugimoto T, Yamauchi M et al. Multiple vertebral fractures are associated with refractory reflux esophagitis in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Metab. 2005; 23:36-40.
44. Hallberg I, Rosenqvist AM, Kartous L et al. Health-related quality of life after osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int. 2004; 15:834-41.
45. Nevitt MC, Ettinger B, Black DM et al. The association of radiographically detected vertebral fractures with back pain and function: a prospective study. Ann Intern Med. 1998; 128:793-800.
46. Fink HA, Ensrud KE, Nelson DB et al. Disability after clinical fracture in postmenopausal women with low bone density: the Fracture Intervention Trial (FIT). Osteoporos Int. 2003; 14:69-76.
47. Ensrud KE, Thompson DE, Cauley JA et al. Prevalent vertebral deformities predict mortality and hospitalization in older women with low bone mass. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000; 48:241-9.
48. Margolis DJ, Knauss J, Bilker W et al. Medical conditions as risk factors for pressure ulcers in an outpatient setting. Age Ageing. 2003; 32:259-64.
49. Melton LJ 3rd. Adverse outcomes of osteoporotic fractures in the general population. J Bone Miner Res. 2003; 18:1139-41.
50. Schlaich C, Minne HW, Bruckner T et al. Reduced pulmonary function in patients with spinal osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int. 1998; 8:261-7.
51. Adachi JD, Ioannidis G, Olszynski WP et al. The impact of incident vertebral and non-vertebral fractures on health related quality of life in postmenopausal women. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2002; 3:11.
52. Empana JP, Dargent-Molina P, Breart G. Effect of hip fracture on mortality in elderly women: the EPIDOS prospective study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004; 52:685-90.
53. Center JR, Nguyen TV, Schneider D et al. Mortality after all major types of osteoporotic fracture in men and women: an observational study. Lancet. 1999; 353:878-82.
54. Cauley JA, Thompson DE, Ensrud KC et al. Risk of mortality following clinical fractures. Osteoporos Int. 2000; 11:556-61.
55. Keene GS, Parker MJ, Pryor GA. Mortality and morbidity after hip fractures. BMJ. 1993; 307:1248-50.
56. New Europe Consensus on Osteoporosis. 2nd Central and Eastern European Regional Osteoporosis Meeting. www.iofbonehealth.org/download/osteofound/ filemanager/policy_advocacy/pdf/lacrima.pdf (accessed 2007 Nov 27).
57. American Geriatrics Society, British Geriatrics Society, and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Panel on Falls Prevention. Guideline for the prevention of falls in older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001; 49:664-72.
58. Podsiadlo D, Richardson S. The timed "up & go": a test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1991; 39:142-8.
59. Robbins AS, Rubenstein LZ, Josephson KR et al. Predictors of falls among elderly people. Results of two population-based studies. Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149:1628-33.
60. Fick DM, Cooper JW, Wade WE et al. Updating the Beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults: results of a US consensus panel of experts. Arch Intern Med. 2003; 163:2716-24.
61. Sleeper RB, Bond C, Rojas-Fernandez C. Psychotropic drugs and falls: new evidence pertaining to SSRIs. Pharmacotherapy. 2000; 20:308-17.
62. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Screening for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: recommendations and rationale. www.ahrq.gov/clinic/ 3rduspstf/osteoporosis/osteorr.htm (accessed 2005 Apr 21).
63. Lydick E, Cook K, Turpin J et al. Development and validation of a simple questionnaire to facilitate identification of women likely to have low bone density. Am J Manag Care. 1998; 4:37-48.
64. Cadarette SM, Jaglal SB, Kreiger N et al. Development and validation of the Osteoporosis Risk Assessment Instrument to facilitate selection of women for bone densitometry. CMAJ. 2000; 162:1289-94.
65. Cadarette SM, Jaglal SB, Murray TM et al. Evaluation of decision rules for referring women for bone densitometry by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. JAMA. 2001; 286:57-63.
66. International Osteoporosis Foundation. WHO Working Group on Fracture Risk Assessment. www.iofbonehealth.org/about-iof/partnerships/who.html (accessed 2006 Jul 20).
67. Kanis JA, Borgstrom F, De Laet C et al. Assessment of fracture risk. Osteoporos Int. 2005; 16:581-9.
68. Lewiecki EM, Watts NB, McClung MR et al. Official positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89:3651-5.
69. Cummings SR, Bates D, Black DM. Clinical use of bone densitometry: scientific review. JAMA. 2002; 288:1889-97.
70. Cummings SR, Black DM, Nevitt MC et al. Bone density at various sites for prediction of hip fractures. Lancet. 1993; 341:72-5.
71. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Metaanalysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ. 1996; 312:1254-9.
72. Siris ES, Miller PD, Barrett-Connor E et al. Identification and fracture outcomes of undiagnosed low bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment. JAMA 2001; 286:2815-22.
73. National Osteoporosis Foundation. National Osteoporosis Foundation's updated recommendations for calcium and vitamin D intake. www.nof.org/ prevention/calcium_and_VitaminD.htm (accessed 2007 Jul 31).
74. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intake tables: elements. www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/294/0.pdf (accessed 2005 May 3).
75. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intake tables: vitamins. www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/296/0.pdf (accessed 2005 May 3).
76. NIH Consensus Conference. Optimal calcium intake. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Optimal Calcium Intake. JAMA. 1994; 272:1942-8.
77. Grant AM, Avenell A, Campbell MK et al. Oral vitamin D3 and calcium for secondary prevention of low-trauma fractures in elderly people (Randomised Evaluation of Calcium Or vitamin D, RECORD): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2005; 365: 1621-8.
78. Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354:669-83.
79. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Wong JB et al. Fracture prevention with vitamin D supplementation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2005; 293:2257-64.
80. Fosamax (alendronate) package insert. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck; 2004.
81. Boniva (ibandronate sodium) injection package insert. Nutley, NJ: Roche Laboratories; 2006.
82. Boniva (ibandronate sodium) package insert. Nutley, NJ: Roche Laboratories; 2005.
83. Actonel (risedronate) package insert. Cincinnati: Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals; 2007.
84. Reclast (zoledronic acid) injection package insert. East Hanover, NJ: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation; 2007 Aug.
85. Miacalcin (calcitonin-salmon) package insert. East Hanover, NJ: Novartis; 2003.
86. Premarin (Conjugated Estrogens Tablets, USP) package insert. Philadelphia: Wyeth; 2005.
87. Evista (raloxifene) package insert. Indianapolis: Eli Lilly and Company; 2003.
88. Forteo (teriparatide [rDNA origin] injection) package insert. Indianapolis: Eli Lilly and Company; 2004.
89. McClung MR, Lewiecki EM, Cohen SB et al. Denosumab in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354:821-31.
90. Greenspan SL, Bone HG, Marriott TB et al. Preventing the first vertebral fracture in postmenopausal women with low bone mass using PTH (1-84): results from the TOP study. J Bone Miner Res. 2005; 05-A-1321-ASBMR. Abstract.
91. Rubin CD, Pak CY, Adams-Huet B et al. Sustained-release sodium fluoride in the treatment of the elderly with established osteoporosis. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161:2325-33.
92. Pak CY, Sakhaee K, Adams-Huet B et al. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with slow-release sodium fluoride. Final report of a randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1995; 123:401-8.
93. Reginster JY, Meurmans L, Zegels B et al. The effect of sodium monofluorophosphate plus calcium on vertebral fracture rate in postmenopausal women with moderate osteoporosis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1998; 129:1-8.
94. Meunier PJ, Roux C, Seeman E et al. The effects of strontium ranelate on the risk of vertebral fracture in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2004; 350:459-68.
95. Reginster JY, Seeman E, De Vernejoul MC et al. Strontium ranelate reduces the risk of nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: Treatment of Peripheral Osteoporosis Study (TROPOS). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90:2816-22.
96. Licata AA. Discovery, clinical development, and therapeutic uses of bisphosphonates. Ann Pharmacother. 2005; 39:668-77.
97. Delmas PD, Adami S, Strugala C et al. Intravenous ibandronate injections in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: one-year results from the dosing intravenous administration study. Arthritis Rheum. 2006; 54:1838-46.
98. Reid IR, Brown JP, Burckhardt P et al. Intravenous zoledronic acid in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346:653-61.
99. Rizzoli R, Greenspan SL, Bone G 3rd et al. Two-year results of once-weekly administration of alendronate 70 mg for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res. 2002; 17:1988-96.
100. Brown JP, Kendler DL, McClung MR et al. The efficacy and tolerability of risedronate once a week for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int. 2002; 71:103-11.
101. Miller PD, McClung MR, Macovei L et al. Monthly oral ibandronate therapy in postmenopausal osteoporosis: 1-year results from the MOBILE study. J Bone Miner Res. 2005; 20:1315-22.
102. Tsun EC, Heck AM. Intermittent dosing of alendronate. Ann Pharmacother. 2001; 35:1471-5.
103. Bauss F, Russell RG. Ibandronate in osteoporosis: preclinical data and rationale for intermittent dosing. Osteoporos Int. 2004; 15:423-33.
104. Odvina CV, Zerwekh JE, Rao DS et al. Severely suppressed bone turnover: a potential complication of alendronate therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90:1294-301.
105. Ott SM. Long-term safety of bisphosphonates. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90:1897-9.
106. Woo SB, Hellstein JW, Kalmar JR. Systematic review: bisphosphonates and osteonecrosis of the jaws. Ann Intern Med. 2006; 144:753-61.
107. Ensrud KE, Barrett-Connor EL, Schwartz A et al. Randomized trial of effect of alendronate continuation versus discontinuation in women with low BMD: results from the Fracture Intervention Trial long-term extension. J Bone Miner Res. 2004; 19:1259-69.
108. Ste-Marie LG, Sod E, Johnson T et al. Five years of treatment with risedronate and its effects on bone safety in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int. 2004; 75:469-76.
109. Pondel M. Calcitonin and calcitonin receptors: bone and beyond. Int J Exp Pathol. 2000; 81:405-22.
110. Zaidi M, Moonga BS, Abe E. Calcitonin and bone formation: a knockout full of surprises. J Clin Invest. 2002; 110:1769-71.
111. Lyritis GP, Paspati I, Karachalios T et al. Pain relief from nasal salmon calcitonin in osteoporotic vertebral crush fractures. A double blind, placebo-controlled clinical study. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl. 1997; 275:112-4.
112. Lyritis GP, Tsakalakos N, Magiasis B et al. Analgesic effect of salmon calcitonin in osteoporotic vertebral fractures: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. Calcif Tissue Int. 1991; 49:369-72.
113. Naessen T, Persson I, Adami HO et al. Hormone replacement therapy and the risk for first hip fracture. A prospective, population-based cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 1990; 113:95-103.
114. Torgerson DJ, Bell-Syer SE. Hormone replacement therapy and prevention of nonvertebral fractures: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. JAMA. 2001; 285:2891-7.
115. Torgerson DJ, Bell-Syer SE. Hormone replacement therapy and prevention of vertebral fractures: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2001; 2:7.
116. Weiss NS, Ure CL, Ballard JH et al. Decreased risk of fractures of the hip and lower forearm with postmenopausal use of estrogen. N Engl J Med. 1980; 303:1195-8.
117. Cauley JA, Robbins J, Chen Z et al. Effects of estrogen plus progestin on risk of fracture and bone mineral density: the Women's Health Initiative randomized trial. JAMA. 2003; 290:1729-38.
118. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Facts about postmenopausal hormone therapy. www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/women/pht_facts.htm (accessed 2005 May 6).
119. Delmas PD, Bjarnason NH, Mitlak BH et al. Effects of raloxifene on bone mineral density, serum cholesterol concentrations, and uterine endometrium in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337:1641-7.
120. Vogel VG, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL et al. Effects of tamoxifen vs raloxifene on the risk of developing invasive breast cancer and other disease outcomes: the NSABP Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) P-2 trial. JAMA. 2006; 295:2727-41.
121. Barrett-Connor E, Mosca L, Collins P et al. Effects of raloxifene on cardiovascular events and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355:125-37.
122. Hodsman AB, Bauer DC, Dempster D et al. Parathyroid hormone and teriparatide for the treatment of osteoporosis: a review of the evidence and suggested guidelines for its use. Endocr Rev. 2005; 26:688-703.
123. DrugStore.com. Drug prices and information: Forteo. www.drugstore.com/ pharmacy/prices/drugprice.asp?ndc=00002897101&trx=1Z5066#info (accessed 2007 Nov 29).
124. Bone HG, Greenspan SL, McKeever C et al. Alendronate and estrogen effects in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000; 85:720-6.
125. Greenspan SL, Resnick NM, Parker RA. Combination therapy with hormone replacement and alendronate for prevention of bone loss in elderly women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003; 289:2525-33.
126. Harris ST, Eriksen EF, Davidson M et al. Effect of combined risedronate and hormone replacement therapies on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 86:1890-7.
127. Johnell O, Scheele WH, Lu Y et al. Additive effects of raloxifene and alendronate on bone density and biochemical markers of bone remodeling in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 87:985-92.
128. Black DM, Greenspan SL, Ensrud KE et al. The effects of parathyroid hormone and alendronate alone or in combination in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349:1207-15.
129. Finkelstein JS, Hayes A, Hunzelman JL et al. The effects of parathyroid hormone, alendronate, or both in men with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349:1216-26.
130. Black DM, Bilezikian JP, Ensrud KE et al. One year of alendronate after one year of parathyroid hormone (1-84) for osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2005; 353:555-65.
131. Whyte MP. The long and the short of bone therapy. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354:860-3.
132. European Medicines Agency. Preotact: European public assessment report. www.emea.eu.int/humandocs/Humans/EPAR/preotact/preotact.htm (accessed 2007 Jul 26).
133. NPS Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Preos: NPS updates status of Preos NDA. www.drugs.com/nda/preos_060329.html (accessed 2006 Jul 27).
134. Preotact (parathyroid horomone 1-84) package insert. Rosklide, Denmark: Nycomed Danmark ApS; 2006.
135. Greenspan SL, Bone HG, Ettinger MP et al. Effect of recombinant human parathyroid hormone (1-84) on vertebral fracture and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Ann Intern Med. 2007; 146:326-39.
136. Farley JR, Wergedal JE, Baylink DJ. Fluoride directly stimulates proliferation and alkaline phosphatase activity of bone-forming cells. Science. 1983; 222:330-2.
137. Kanis JA. Treatment of symptomatic osteoporosis with fluoride. Am J Med. 1993; 95:53S-61S.
138. Riggs BL, Hodgson SF, O'Fallon WM et al. Effect of fluoride treatment on the fracture rate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 1990; 322:802-9.
139. Marie PJ. Optimizing bone metabolism in osteoporosis: insight into the pharmacologic profile of strontium ranelate. Osteoporos Int. 2003; 14(suppl 3):S9-12.
140. Protelos (strontium ranelate) package insert. Neuilly sur Seine, France: Les Laboratoires Servier; 2004.
141. Zimmerman SI, Girman CJ, Buie VC et al. The prevalence of osteoporosis in nursing home residents. Osteoporos Int. 1999; 9:151-7.
142. Wallace RB. Bone health in nursing home residents. JAMA. 2000; 284:1018-9.
143. Gaugris S, Heaney RP, Boonen S et al. Vitamin D inadequacy among postmenopausal women: a systematic review. QJM. 2005; 98:667-76.
144. Parker MJ, Gillespie LD, Gillespie WJ. Hip protectors for preventing hip fractures in the elderly. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000; 4:CD001255.
145. Parker MJ, Gillespie WJ, Gillespie LD. Effectiveness of hip protectors for preventing hip fractures in elderly people: systematic review. BMJ. 2006; 332:571-4.
146. Gupta G, Aronow WS. Underuse of procedures for diagnosing osteoporosis and of therapies for osteoporosis in older nursing home residents. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2003; 4:200-2.
147. Schousboe JT, Ensrud KE, Nyman JA et al. Universal bone densitometry screening combined with alendronate therapy for those diagnosed with osteoporosis is highly cost-effective for elderly women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005; 53:1697-1704.
148. Kamel HK. Underutilization of calcium and vitamin D supplements in an academic long-term care facility. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2004; 5:98-100.
149. Rojas-Fernandez C, Lapane KL, MacKnight C et al. Undertreatment of osteoporosis in residents of nursing homes: population-based study with use of the Systematic Assessment of Geriatric Drug Use via Epidemiology (SAGE) database. Endocr Pract. 2002; 8:335-42.
150. Colon-Emeric CS, Casebeer L, Saag K et al. Barriers to providing osteoporosis care in skilled nursing facilities: perceptions of medical directors and directors of nursing. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2004; 5:361-6.
151. Amin S, Felson DT. Osteoporosis in men. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2001; 27:19-47.
152. National Osteoporosis Foundation. Osteoporosis: men. www.nof.org/men/ index.htm (accessed 2005 Mar 23).
153. Olszynski WP, Shawn Davison K, Adachi JD et al. Osteoporosis in men: epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Clin Ther. 2004; 26:15-28.
154. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Bone mass measurement. www.cms.hhs.gov/BoneMassMeasurement/ (accessed 2006 Jul 14).
155. Biskobing DM. COPD and osteoporosis. Chest. 2002; 121:609-20.
156. Shephard AJ, Cass AR, Carlson CA et al. Development and internal validation of the male osteoporosis risk estimation score. Ann Fam Med. 2007; 5:540-6.
157. Orwoll E, Ettinger M, Weiss S et al. Alendronate for the treatment of osteoporosis in men. N Engl J Med. 2000; 343:604-10.