Uncommon causes of thyrotoxicosis

Journal of Nuclear Medicine

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 265-278

  Mittra, Erik S ^a   Niederkohr, Ryan D ^a   Rodriguez, Cesar ^a   El Maghraby, Tarek ^b,c   McDougall, I Ross ^a,d  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b CAIRO UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

^c SAAD SPECIALIST HOSPITAL   (Saudi Arabia)

^d STANFORD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Graves' disease; Thyroid hormones; Thyroiditis; Thyrotoxicosis

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ANTITHYROID AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CYTOKINE; DENILEUKIN DIFTITOX; IODINE 123; IODINE 131; IOPANOIC ACID; IOPODIC ACID; LEUPRORELIN; LEVOTHYROXINE; LIOTHYRONINE; LITHIUM; PEGINTERFERON; POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE; PREDNISONE; PROPRANOLOL; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; RIBAVIRIN; STEROID; TECHNETIUM 99M; THIAMAZOLE; THYROTROPIN;

AGRANULOCYTOSIS; BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG MEGADOSE; ENDOCRINE OPHTHALMOPATHY; FREE LIOTHYRONINE INDEX; FREE THYROXINE INDEX; GRAVES DISEASE; HUMAN; HYPOTHYROIDISM; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RASH; REVIEW; THYROID CANCER; THYROIDITIS; THYROTOXICOSIS; WHOLE BODY SCINTISCANNING; WILSON DISEASE;

ADULT; AGED; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; RARE DISEASES; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; THYROTOXICOSIS;

EID: 38949178035     PISSN: 01615505     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.107.041202     Document Type: Review

References (186)

1. Iagaru A, McDougall IR. Treatment of thyrotoxicosis. J Nucl Med. 2007;48:379-389.
2. Figge J, Leinung M, Goodman AD, et al. The clinical evaluation of patients with subclinical hyperthyroidism and free triiodothyronine (free T3) toxicosis. Am J Med. 1994;96:229-234.
3. Sakata S, Ogawa T. Free T3 toxicosis: a distinct entity? Am J Med. 1991;91:100.
4. Martino E, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE. The effects of amiodarone on the thyroid. Endocr Rev. 2001;22:240-254.
5. Biondi B, Palmieri EA, Lombardi G, Fazio S. Effects of subclinical thyroid dysfunction on the heart. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:904-914.
6. Cavalieri RR, Gerard SK. Unusual types of thyrotoxicosis. Adv Intern Med. 1991;36:271-286.
7. Blair JC, Mohan U, Larcher VF, et al. Neonatal thyrotoxicosis and maternal infertility in thyroid hormone resistance due to a mutation in the TRbeta gene (M313T). Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2002;57:405-409.
8. Polak M, Le Gac I, Vuillard E, et al. Fetal and neonatal thyroid function in relation to maternal Graves' disease. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;18:289-302.
9. Kopp P. The TSH receptor and its role in thyroid disease. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2001;58:1301-1322.
10. Radetti G, Persani L, Moroder W, Cortelazzi D, Gentili L, Beck-Peccoz P. Transplacental passage of anti-thyroid auto-antibodies in a pregnant woman with auto-immune thyroid disease. Prenat Diagn. 1999;19:468-471.
11. Smith C, Thomsett M, Choong C, Rodda C, McIntyre HD, Cotterill AM. Congenital thyrotoxicosis in premature infants. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2001;54:371-376.
12. Laurberg P, Nygaard B, Glinoer D, Grussendorf M, Orgiazzi J. Guidelines for TSH-receptor antibody measurements in pregnancy: results of an evidence-based symposium organized by the European Thyroid Association. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;139:584-586.
13. Luton D, Le Gac I, Vuillard E, et al. Management of Graves' disease during pregnancy: the key role of fetal thyroid gland monitoring. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:6093-6098.
14. Claus M, Maier J, Paschke R, Kujat C, Stumvoll M, Fuhrer D. Novel thyrotropin receptor germline mutation (Ile568Val) in a Saxonian family with hereditary nonautoimmune hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2005;15:1089-1094.
15. Nwosu BU, Gourgiotis L, Gershengorn MC, Neumann S. A novel activating mutation in transmembrane helix 6 of the thyrotropin receptor as cause of hereditary nonautoimmune hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2006;16:505-512.
16. Tornhage CJ, Grankvist K. Acquired neonatal thyroid disease due to TSH receptor antibodies in breast milk. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2006;19:787-794.
17. Tan MJ, Tan F, Hawkins R, Cheah WK, Mukherjee JJ. A hyperthyroid patient with measurable thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration: a trap for the unwary. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2006;35:500-503.
18. Chanson P, Salenave S. Diagnosis and treatment of pituitary adenomas. Minerva Endocrinol. 2004;29:241-275.
19. Socin HV, Chanson P, Delemer B, et al. The changing spectrum of TSHsecreting pituitary adenomas: diagnosis and management in 43 patients. Eur J Endocrinol. 2003;148:433-442.
20. Simard M. Pituitary tumor endocrinopathies and their endocrine evaluation. Neurosurg Clin North Am. 2003;14:41-54.
21. Brucker-Davis F, Oldfield EH, Skarulis MC, Doppman JL, Weintraub BD. Thyrotropin-secreting pituitary tumors: diagnostic criteria, thyroid hormone sensitivity, and treatment outcome in 25 patients followed at the National Institutes of Health. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:476-486.
22. Wynne AG, Gharib H, Scheithauer BW, Davis DH, Freeman SL, Horvath E. Hyperthyroidism due to inappropriate secretion of thyrotropin in 10 patients. Am J Med. 1992;92:15-24.
23. Brown RL, Muzzafar T, Wollman R, Weiss RE. A pituitary carcinoma secreting TSH and prolactin: a non-secreting adenoma gone awry. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154:639-643.
24. Beck-Peccoz P, Brucker-Davis F, Persani L, Smallridge RC, Weintraub BD. Thyrotropin-secreting pituitary tumors. Endocr Rev. 1996;17:610-638.
25. Laws E, Vance ML, Jane JA. TSH adenoma. Pituitary. 2006;9:313-315.
26. Sanno N, Teramoto A, Osamura RY. Long-term surgical outcome in 16 patients with thyrotropin pituitary adenoma. J Neurosurg. 2000;93:194-200.
27. Beck-Peccoz P, Persani L. Medical management of thyrotropin-secreting pituitary adenomas. Pituitary. 2002;5:83-88.
28. Shomali ME, Katznelson L. Medical therapy of gonadotropin-producing and nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. Pituitary. 2002;5:89-98.
29. Shomali ME, Katznelson L. Medical therapy for gonadotroph and thyrotroph tumors. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1999;28:223-240.
30. Daousi C, Foy PM, MacFarlane IA. Ablative thyroid treatment for thyrotoxicosis due to thyrotropin-producing pituitary tumours. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78:93-95.
31. Cooper DS, Wenig BM. Hyperthyroidism caused by an ectopic TSH-secreting pituitary tumor. Thyroid. 1996;6:337-343.
32. Beck-Peccoz P, Forloni F, Cortelazzi D, et al. Pituitary resistance to thyroid hormones. Horm Res. 1992;38:66-72.
33. McDermott MT, Ridgway EC. Central hyperthyroidism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1998;27:187-203.
34. Olateju TO, Vanderpump MP. Thyroid hormone resistance. Ann Clin Biochem. 2006;43:431-440.
35. Pishdad GR, Pishdad P, Sabzi A. A case of transient central hyperthyroidism. Med Sci Monit. 2006;12:CS103-CS105.
36. Castro MR, Kocher D, Morris JC. An unusual case of inappropriate secretion of thyrotropin: neoplastic or nonneoplastic? Endocr Pract. 2000;6:29-33.
37. Nagayama Y, Rapoport B. The thyrotropin receptor 25 years after its discovery: new insight after its molecular cloning. Mol Endocrinol. 1992;6:145-156.
38. Hershman J. Physiological and pathological aspects of the effect of human chorionic gonadotropin on the thyroid. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;18:249-265.
39. Cooper D. Hyperthyroidism. Lancet. 2003;362:459-468.
40. Kenimer J, Hershman JM, Higgins HP. The thyrotropin in hydatidiform moles is human chorionic gonadotropin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1975;40:482-491.
41. Yoshimura M, Hershman JM, Pang XP, Berg L, Pekary AE. Activation of the thyrotropin (TSH) receptor by human chorionic gonadotropin and luteinizing hormone in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing functional human TSH receptors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;77:1009-1013.
42. Tomer Y, Huber GK, Davies TF. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) interacts directly with recombinant human TSH receptors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992;74:1477-1479.
43. Kato K, Mostafa MH, Mann K, Schindler AE, Hoermann R. The human chorionic gonadotropin molecule from patients with trophoblastic diseases has a high thyrotropic activity but is less active in the ovary. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2004;18:269-277.
44. Palmer J. Advances in the epidemiology of gestational trophoblastic disease. J Reprod Med. 1994;39:156-162.
45. Yoshimura M, Hershman JM. Thyrotropic action of human chorionic gonadotropin. Thyroid. 1995;5:425-434.
46. Berkowitz R, Goldstein DP, DuBeshter B, Bernstein MR. Management of complete molar pregnancy. J Reprod Med. 1987;32:634-639.
47. Brinton L, Bracken MB, Connelly RR. Choriocarcinoma incidence in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 1986;123:1094-1100.
48. Morley JE, Jacobson RJ, Melamed J, Hershman JM. Choriocarcinoma as a cause of thyrotoxicosis. Am J Med. 1976;60:1036-1040.
49. Goodarzi M, Van Herle AJ. Thyrotoxicosis in a male patient associated with excess human chorionic gonadotropin production by germ cell tumor. Thyroid. 2000;10:611-619.
50. Padmanabhan LD, Mhaskar R, Mhaskar A, Vallikad E. Trophoblastic hyperthyroidism. J Assoc Physicians India. 2003;51:1011-1013.
51. Tan JY, Loh KC, Yeo GS, Chee YC. Transient hyperthyroidism of hyperemesis gravidarum. BJOG. 2002;109:683-688.
52. Aka N, Atalay S, Sayharman S, Kilic D, Kose G, Kucukozkan T. Leptin and leptin receptor levels in pregnant women with hyperemesis gravidarum. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;46:274-277.
53. Hershman JM. Human chorionic gonadotropin and the thyroid: hyperemesis gravidarum and trophoblastic tumors. Thyroid. 1999;9:653-657.
54. Matsuda K, Maehama T, Kanazawa K. Malignant struma ovarii with thyrotoxicosis. Gynecol Oncol. 2001;82:575-577.
55. Margerit D, Kraimps JL, Scepi M, Lahan A, Gougeon JM, Barbier J. Malignant ovarian goiter: apropos of a case and review of the literature [in French]. Ann Chir. 1995;49:331.
56. McDougall IR. Metastatic struma ovarii: the burden of truth. Clin Nucl Med. 2006;31:321-324.
57. Ayhan A, Yanik F, Tuncer R, Tuncer ZS, Ruacan S. Struma ovarii. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1993;42:143-146.
58. Grandet PJ, Remi MH. Struma ovarii with hyperthyroidism. Clin Nucl Med. 2000;25:763-765.
59. Kempers RD, Dockerty MB, Hoffman DL, Bartholomew LG. Struma ovarii: ascitic, hyperthyroid, and asymptomatic syndromes. Ann Intern Med. 1970;72:883-893.
60. Costa MA, Povoa AM, Pires MC, Paiva VL, Pinto C, Martinez-de-Oliveira J. Struma ovarii: a rare form of presentation and clinical review. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2005;84:819-820.
61. Ross DS. Syndromes of thyrotoxicosis with low radioactive iodine uptake. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1998;27:169-185.
62. 131I ovarian uptake in a whole-body scan for thyroid carcinoma. Semin Nucl Med. 1989;19:340-342.
63. Zalel Y, Seidman DS, Oren M, et al. Sonographic and clinical characteristics of struma ovarii. J Ultrasound Med. 2000;19:857-861.
64. Matsuki M, Kaji Y, Matsuo M, Kobashi Y. Struma ovarii: MRI findings. Br J Radiol. 2000;73:87-90.
65. Okada S, Ohaki Y, Kawamura T, Hayashi T, Kumazaki T. Cystic struma ovarii: imaging findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2000;24:413-415.
66. Rosario F, Marques AR, Roque L, et al. Metastatic follicular carcinoma associated with hyperthyroidism. Clin Nucl Med. 2005;30:79-82.
67. Pont A, Spratt D, Shinn JB. T3 toxicosis due to nonmetastatic follicular carcinoma of the thyroid. West J Med. 1982;136:255-258.
68. Niepomniszcze H, Suarez H, Pitoia F, et al. Follicular carcinoma presenting as autonomous functioning thyroid nodule and containing an activating mutation of the TSH receptor (T620I) and a mutation of the Ki-RAS (G12C) genes. Thyroid. 2006;16:497-503.
69. Bellantone R, Lombardi CP, Bossola M, Fadda G, Salvatori M, Princi P. Posterior mediastinal hyperfunctioning insular thyroid carcinoma. Tumori. 2005;91:358-360.
70. Ober KP, Cowan RJ, Sevier RE, Poole GJ. Thyrotoxicosis caused by functioning metastatic thyroid carcinoma: a rare and elusive cause of hyperthyroidism with low radioactive iodine uptake. Clin Nucl Med. 1987;12:345-348.
71. Ikejiri K, Furuyama M, Muranaka T, et al. Carcinoma of the thyroid manifested as hyperthyroidism caused by functional bone metastasis. Clin Nucl Med. 1997;22:227-230.
72. Kasagi K, Takeuchi R, Miyamoto S, et al. Metastatic thyroid cancer presenting as thyrotoxicosis: report of three cases. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994;40:429-434.
73. Naito Y, Sone T, Kataoka K, Sawada M, Yamazaki K. Thyroid storm due to functioning metastatic thyroid carcinoma in a burn patient. Anesthesiology. 1997;87:433-435.
74. Salvatori M, Saletnich I, Rufini V, et al. Severe thyrotoxicosis due to functioning pulmonary metastases of well-differentiated thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med. 1998;39:1202-1207.
75. Federman DD. Hyperthyroidism due to functioning metastatic carcinoma of the thyroid. Medicine (Baltimore). 1964;43:267-274.
76. Paul SJ, Sisson JC. Thyrotoxicosis caused by thyroid cancer. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1990;19:593-612.
77. Ishihara T, Ikekubo K, Shimodahira M, et al. A case of TSH receptor antibodypositive hyperthyroidism with functioning metastases of thyroid carcinoma. Endocr J. 2002;49:241-245.
78. 131I. J Nucl Med. 2001;42:975-983.
79. 131I in patients with thyroid carcinoma. Cancer Biother Radiopharm. 2002;17:101-105.
80. Cerletty JM, Listwan WJ. Hyperthyroidism due to functioning metastatic thyroid carcinoma: precipitation of thyroid storm with therapeutic radioactive iodine. JAMA. 1979;242:269-270.
81. Abdallah-Matta MP, Dubarry PH, Pessey JJ, Caron P. Lingual thyroid and hyperthyroidism: a new case and review of the literature. J Endocrinol Invest. 2002;25:264-267.
82. Yamauchi M, Inoue D, Sato H, et al. A case of ectopic thyroid in lateral neck associated with Graves' disease. Endocr J. 1999;46:731-734.
83. Gungor B, Kebat T, Ozaslan C, Akilli S. Intra-abdominal ectopic thyroid presenting with hyperthyroidism: report of a case. Surg Today. 2002;32:148-150.
84. Slatosky J, Shipton B, Wahba H. Thyroiditis: differential diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61:1047-1052, 1054.
85. Vitti P, Rago T, Barbesino G, Chiovato L. Thyroiditis: clinical aspects and diagnostic imaging. Rays. 1999;24:301-314.
86. Bindra A, Braunstein GD. Thyroiditis. Am Fam Physician. 2006;73:1769-1776.
87. Fatourechi V. Demystifying autoimmune thyroid disease. Which disorders require treatment? Postgrad Med. 2000;107:127-134.
88. Pearce EN, Farwell AP, Braverman LE. Thyroiditis. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2646-2655.
89. Farwell AP, Braverman LE. Inflammatory thyroid disorders. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1996;29:541-556.
90. Cunha BA, Thermidor M, Mohan S, Valsamis AS, Johnson DH. Fever of unknown origin: subacute thyroiditis versus typhoid fever. Heart Lung. 2005;34:147-151.
91. de Bruin TW, Riekhoff FP, de Boer JJ. An outbreak of thyrotoxicosis due to atypical subacute thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;70:396-402.
92. Weiss BM, Hepburn MJ, Mong DP. Subacute thyroiditis manifesting as fever of unknown origin. South Med J. 2000;93:926-929.
93. Avram AM, Sturm CA, Michael CW, Sisson JC, Jaffe CA. Cryptococcal thyroiditis and hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 2004;14:471-474.
94. Brook I. Microbiology and management of acute suppurative thyroiditis in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2003;67:447-451.
95. Nishihara E, Miyauchi A, Matsuzuka F, et al. Acute suppurative thyroiditis after fine-needle aspiration causing thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2005;15:1183-1187.
96. Reksoprawiro S. Suppurative thyroiditis with gas formation. Asian J Surg. 2003;26:180-182.
97. Blonde L, Witkin M, Harris R. Painless subacute thyroiditis simulating Graves' disease. West J Med. 1976;125:75-78.
98. Woolf PD, Daly R. Thyrotoxicosis with painless thyroiditis. Am J Med. 1976;60:73-79.
99. Nikolai TF, Brosseau J, Kettrick MA, Roberts R, Beltaos E. Lymphocytic thyroiditis with spontaneously resolving hyperthyroidism (silent thyroiditis). Arch Intern Med. 1980;140:478-482.
100. Dorfman SG, Cooperman MT, Nelson RL, Depuy H, Peake RL, Young RL. Painless thyroiditis and transient hyperthyroidism without goiter. Ann Intern Med. 1977;86:24-28.
101. Sanders LR, Moreno AJ, Pittman DL, Jones JD, Spicer MJ, Tracy KP. Painless giant cell thyroiditis diagnosed by fine needle aspiration and associated with intense thyroidal uptake of gallium. Am J Med. 1986;80:971-975.
102. Ozawa Y. Painless (silent) thyroiditis [in Japanese]. Nippon Rinsho. 1999;57:1770-1774.
103. Sarlis NJ, Brucker-Davis F, Swift JP, Tahara K, Kohn LD. Graves' disease following thyrotoxic painless thyroiditis: analysis of antibody activities against the thyrotropin receptor in two cases. Thyroid. 1997;7:829-836.
104. Umena S, Takano T, Iijima T, et al. A case of repeated painless thyroiditis followed by Graves' disease. Endocr J. 1995;42:821-826.
105. Ho SC, Eng PH, Fok AC, Ng DC, Khoo DH. Thyrotoxicosis due to the simultaneous occurrence of silent thyroiditis and Graves' disease. Thyroid. 1999;9:1127-1132.
106. Choe W, McDougall IR. Ablation of thyroid function with radioactive iodine after recurrent episodes of silent thyroiditis. Thyroid. 1993;3:311-313.
107. Nikolai T. Silent thyroiditis and subacute thyroiditis. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD, eds. Werner and Ingbar's The Thyroid. Philadelphia, PA: JB Lippincott; 1992:710-727.
108. Dang AH, Hershman JM. Lithium-associated thyroiditis. Endocr Pract. 2002;8:232-236.
109. Miller KK, Daniels GH. Association between lithium use and thyrotoxicosis caused by silent thyroiditis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2001;55:501-508.
110. Nakamura S, Isaji M, Ishimori M. Familial occurrence of silent thyroiditis. Endocr J. 2005;52:617-621.
111. Gossain VV, Rovner DR, Rhodes CE. Recurrent transient hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism associated with pregnancy. South Med J. 1983;76:808-810.
112. Inada M, Nishikawa M, Oishi M, Kurata S, Imura H. Post-partum transient thyrotoxicosis: report of two cases. Endocrinol Jpn. 1979;26:611-615.
113. Fein HG, Goldman JM, Weintraub BD. Postpartum lymphocytic thyroiditis in American women: a spectrum of thyroid dysfunction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1980;138:504-510.
114. Dourthe LM, Coutant G, Bechade D, Bili H, Algayres JP, Daly JP. Postpartum thyroiditis: a silent entity [in French]. Presse Med. 1999;28:339.
115. Mestman JH. Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;18:267-288.
116. Mestman JH. Perinatal thyroid dysfunction: prenatal diagnosis and treatment. Medscape Womens Health. 1997;2:2.
117. Casey BM, Leveno KJ. Thyroid disease in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108:1283-1292.
118. Lazarus JH, Parkes AB, Premawardhana LD. Postpartum thyroiditis. Autoimmunity. 2002;35:169-173.
119. Mittra ES, McDougall IR. Recurrent silent thyroiditis: a report of four patients and review of the literature. Thyroid. 2007;17:671-675.
120. Petersen M, Keeling CA, McDougall IR. Hyperthyroidism with low radioiodine uptake after head and neck irradiation for Hodgkin's disease. J Nucl Med. 1989;30:255-257.
121. Hancock SL, McDougall IR, Constine LS. Thyroid abnormalities after therapeutic external radiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995;31:1165-1170.
122. Hancock SL, Cox RS, McDougall IR. Thyroid diseases after treatment of Hodgkin's disease. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:599-605.
123. Blenke EJ, Vernham GA, Ellis G. Surgery-induced thyroiditis following laryngectomy. J Laryngol Otol. 2004;118:313-314.
124. Blum M, Schloss MF. Martial-arts thyroiditis. N Engl J Med. 1984;311:199-200.
125. Carney JA, Moore SB, Northcutt RC, Woolner LB, Stillwell GK. Palpation thyroiditis (multifocal granulomatour folliculitis). Am J Clin Pathol. 1975;64:639-647.
126. Rosen IB, Strawbridge HG, Walfish PG, Bain J. Malignant pseudothyroiditis: a new clinical entity. Am J Surg. 1978;136:445-449.
127. Basaria S, Udelsman R, Tejedor-Sojo J, Westra WH, Krasner AS. Anaplastic pseudothyroiditis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2002;56:553-555.
128. Strauss S, Laurian N. Benign and malignant pseudothyroiditis. J Laryngol Otol. 1983;97:375-378.
129. Trokoudes KM, Rosen IB, Strawbridge HT, Bain J. Carcinomatous pseudothyroiditis: a problem in differential diagnosis. Can Med Assoc J. 1978;119:896-898.
130. Phillips JS, Pledger DR, Hilger AW. Rapid thyrotoxicosis in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. J Laryngol Otol. 2007;121:695-697.
131. Wark H, Wallace EM, Wigg S, Tippett C. Thyroxine abuse: an unusual case of thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998;38:221-223.
132. Snyder S, Jaffe M. Thyrotoxicosis insistiates: report of 17 cases. Ann Intern Med. 1997;127:88.
133. Cohen JH III, Ingbar SH, Braverman LE. Thyrotoxicosis due to ingestion of excess thyroid hormone. Endocr Rev. 1989;10:113-124.
134. Batrinos ML. The problem of exogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism. Hormones (Athens). 2006;5:119-125.
135. Watsky JG, Koeniger MA. Prevalence of iatrogenic hyperthyroidism in a community hospital. J Am Board Fam Pract. 1998;11:175-179.
136. Friedman M, Miranda-Massari JR, Gonzalez MJ. Supraphysiological cyclic dosing of sustained release T3 in order to reset low basal body temperature. P R Health Sci J. 2006;25:23-29.
137. Braunstein GD, Koblin R, Sugawara M, Pekary AE, Hershman JM. Unintentional thyrotoxicosis factitia due to a diet pill. West J Med. 1986;145:388-391.
138. Thyroid extracts as slimming aids: danger! Prescrire Int. 2006;15:183.
139. Harvey RF. Thyroxine "addicts." Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1973;2:35-36.
140. Gorman CA, Wahner HW, Tauxe WN. Metabolic malingerers: patients who deliberately induce or perpetuate a hypermetabolic or hypometabolic state. Am J Med. 1970;48:708-714.
141. Mariotti S, Martino E, Cupini C, et al. Low serum thyroglobulin as a clue to the diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis factitia. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:410-412.
142. Bouillon R, Verresen L, Staels F, Bex M, De Vos P, De Roo M. The measurement of fecal thyroxine in the diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis factitia. Thyroid. 1993;3:101-103.
143. Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Vitti P, Rago T, Brogioni S, Martino E. Color flow Doppler sonography in thyrotoxicosis factitia. J Endocrinol Invest. 1996;19:603-606.
144. Yoon SJ, Kim DM, Kim JU, et al. A case of thyroid storm due to thyrotoxicosis factitia. Yonsei Med J. 2003;44:351-354.
145. Locker GJ, Kotzmann H, Frey B, et al. Factitious hyperthyroidism causing acute myocardial infarction. Thyroid. 1995;5:465-467.
146. Hedberg CW, Fishbein DB, Janssen RS, et al. An outbreak of thyrotoxicosis caused by the consumption of bovine thyroid gland in ground beef. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:993-998.
147. Kinney JS, Hurwitz ES, Fishbein DB, et al. Community outbreak of thyrotoxicosis: epidemiology, immunogenetic characteristics, and long-term outcome. Am J Med. 1988;84:10-18.
148. Parmar MS, Sturge C. Recurrent hamburger thyrotoxicosis. CMAJ. 2003;169:415-417.
149. Feit S, Feit H. Thyrotoxicosis factitia veterinarius. Ann Intern Med. 1997;127:168.
150. Braverman LE. Evaluation of thyroid status in patients with thyrotoxicosis. Clin Chem. 1996;42:174-178.
151. Jod-Basedow (or jod-Coindet). N Engl J Med. 1973;288:105-106.
152. Woeber KA. Iodine and thyroid disease. Med Clin North Am. 1991;75:169-178.
153. Braverman LE. The physiology and pathophysiology of iodine and the thyroid. Thyroid. 2001;11:405.
154. Stanbury JB, Ermans AE, Bourdoux P, et al. Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism: occurrence and epidemiology. Thyroid. 1998;8:83-100.
155. Fradkin JE, Wolff J. Iodide-induced thyrotoxicosis. Medicine (Baltimore). 1983;62:1-20.
156. 125I-fibrinogen test. Age Ageing. 1974;3:221-225.
157. El-Shirbiny AM, Stavrou SS, Dnistrian A, Sonenberg M, Larson SM, Divgi CR. Jod-Basedow syndrome following oral iodine and radioiodinated-antibody administration. J Nucl Med. 1997;38:1816-1817.
158. Mussig K, Thamer C, Bares R, Lipp HP, Haring HU, Gallwitz B. Iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis after ingestion of kelp-containing tea. J Gen Intern Med. 2006;21:C11-C14.
159. Kane MP, Busch RS. Drug-induced thyrotoxic periodic paralysis. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40:778-781.
160. Horn-Ross PL, Morris JS, Lee M, et al. Iodine and thyroid cancer risk among women in a multiethnic population: the Bay Area Thyroid Cancer Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:979-985.
161. Basaria S, Cooper DS. Amiodarone and the thyroid. Am J Med. 2005;118:706-714.
162. Bogazzi F, Dell'Unto E, Tanda ML, et al. Long-term outcome of thyroid function after amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis, as compared to subacute thyroiditis. J Endocrinol Invest. 2006;29:694-699.
163. Diehl LA, Romaldini JH, Graf H, et al. Management of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis in Latin America: an electronic survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2006;65:433-438.
164. Porsche R, Brenner ZR. Amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction. Crit Care Nurse. 2006;26:34-41.
165. Bohbot NL, Young J, Orgiazzi J, et al. Interferon-alpha-induced hyperthyroidism: a three-stage evolution from silent thyroiditis towards Graves' disease. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154:367-372.
166. Bocchetta A, Loviselli A. Lithium treatment and thyroid abnormalities. Clin Pract Epidemol Ment Health. 2006;2:23.
167. Ghori F, Polder KD, Pinter-Brown LC, et al. Thyrotoxicosis after denileukin diftitox therapy in patients with mycosis fungoides. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:2205-2208.
168. Haller M, Schatz D. The role of leuprolide acetate therapy in triggering autoimmune thyroiditis. J Pediatr. 2005;146:294.
169. Kasayama S, Miyake S, Samejima Y. Transient thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism following administration of the GnRH agonist leuprolide acetate. Endocr J. 2000;47:783-785.
170. Kabbaj N, Guedira MM, El Atmani H, et al. Thyroid disorders during interferon alpha therapy in 625 patients with chronic hepatitis C: a prospective cohort study. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2006;67:343-347.
171. Minelli R, Valli MA, Di Secli C, et al. Is steroid therapy needed in the treatment of destructive thyrotoxicosis induced by alpha-interferon in chronic hepatitis C? Horm Res. 2005;63:194-199.
172. Minelli R, Coiro V, Valli MA, et al. Graves' disease in interferon-alpha-treated and untreated patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J Investig Med. 2005;53:26-30.
173. Shen L, Bui C, Mansberg R, Nguyen D, Alam-Fotias S. Thyroid dysfunction during interferon alpha therapy for chronic hepatitis C. Clin Nucl Med. 2005;30:546-547.
174. Tran HA. Thyrotoxicosis during pegylated interferon therapy in a patient with chronic hepatitis C virus. Endocr Pract. 2006;12:231-232.
175. Mandac JC, Chaudhry S, Sherman KE, Tomer Y. The clinical and physiological spectrum of interferon-alpha induced thyroiditis: toward a new classification. Hepatology. 2006;43:661-672.
176. Wong V, Fu AX, George J, Cheung NW. Thyrotoxicosis induced by alphainterferon therapy in chronic viral hepatitis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2002;56:793-798.
177. Dunkelmann S, Kunstner H, Nabavi E, Eberlein U, Groth P, Schumichen C. Lithium as an adjunct to radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease for prolonging the intrathyroidal effective half-life of radioiodine: useful or not? Nuklearmedizin. 2006;45:213-218.
178. Ng YW, Tiu SC, Choi KL, et al. Use of lithium in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis. Hong Kong Med J. 2006;12:254-259.
179. Hoogenberg K, Beentjes JA, PiersDA. Lithium as an adjunct to radioactive iodine in treatment-resistant Graves thyrotoxicosis. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:670.
180. Barclay ML, Brownlie BE, Turner JG, Wells JE. Lithium associated thyrotoxicosis: a report of 14 cases, with statistical analysis of incidence. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994;40:759-764.
181. Chow CC, Lee S, Shek CC, Wing YK, Ahuja A, Cockram CS. Lithium-associated transient thyrotoxicosis in 4 Chinese women with autoimmune thyroiditis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1993;27:246-253.
182. Sirota DK, Cobin RH, Futterweit W, Segal RL, Jacobs DR, Merker E. Hyperthyroidism in patients treated with lithium: report of nine cases. Mt Sinai J Med. 1992;59:79-81.
183. Thomson JA, Wilson RM, Franklin IM. Transmission of thyrotoxicosis of autoimmune type by sibling allogeneic bone marrow transplant. Eur J Endocrinol. 1995;133:564-566.
184. Kami M, Tanaka Y, Chiba S, et al. Thyroid function after bone marrow transplantation: possible association between immune-mediated thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. Transplantation. 2001;71:406-411.
185. Tatevossian R, Blair JC, Plowman PN, Savage MO, Shankar AG. Thyrotoxicosis after matched unrelated bone marrow transplantation. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2004;26:529-531.
186. Marazuela M, Steegman JL. Transfer of autoimmune hypothyroidism following bone marrow transplantation from a donor with Graves' disease. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2000;26:1217-1220.