Optimizing antidiabetic treatment options for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular comorbidities

Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 193-206

  Malesker, Mark A ^a  

^a CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; CVD; Insulin; Treatment options; Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BILE ACID SEQUESTRANT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CLOPIDOGREL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; EZETIMIBE; FENOFIBRATE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; GEMFIBROZIL; GLIMEPIRIDE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; INSULIN GLARGINE; INSULIN LISPRO; MEGLITINIDE; METFORMIN; NATEGLINIDE; NICOTINIC ACID; PIOGLITAZONE; REPAGLINIDE; ROSIGLITAZONE; SITAGLIPTIN; SULFONYLUREA;

CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COMORBIDITY; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIET; DYSLIPIDEMIA; EDEMA; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEART FAILURE; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN TREATMENT; ISCHEMIC PRECONDITIONING; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MORTALITY; MYOSITIS; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; ST SEGMENT DEPRESSION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; AGED; BENZAMIDES; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMORBIDITY; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DRUG INTERACTIONS; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INSULIN; MALE; METFORMIN; MIDDLE AGED; SULFONYLUREA COMPOUNDS; THIAZOLIDINEDIONES;

EID: 38849124241     PISSN: 02770008     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1592/phco.28.2.193     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. American Heart Association. Heart disease and stroke statistics: 2006 update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 2006.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Division for heart disease and stroke prevention: addressing the nations leading killers 2006. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/publications/aag/cvh.htm. Accessed July 27, 2006.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National diabetes fact sheet: United States, 2005. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005.
4. Jawa AA, Fonseca VA. Role of insulin secretagogues and insulin sensitizing agents in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in patients who have diabetes. Cardiol Clin 2005;23:119-38.
5. Devereux RB, Roman MJ, Paranicas M, et al. Impact of diabetes on cardiac structure and function: the strong heart study. Circulation 2000;101:2271-6.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institutes of Health. Diabetes. In: Healthy people 2010. Vol 1. Available from http://www.healthypeople.gov/document/HTML/volume1/05Diabetes.htm. Accessed December 10, 2007.
7. World Health Organization. Diabetes. What is diabetes? Fact sheet no. 312. September 2006. Available from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ factsheets/fs312/en/. Accessed December 12, 2007.
8. Booth GL, Kapral MK, Fung K, Tu JV. Recent trends in cardiovascular complications among men and women with and without diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006;29:32-7.
9. Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2643-53.
10. Nathan DM, Lachin J, Cleary P, et al. Intensive diabetes therapy and carotid intima-media thickness in type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2003;348:2294-303.
11. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993;329:977-86.
12. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 1998;352:854-65.
13. Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, et al. Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:421-31.
14. Khaw K-T, Wareham N, Bingham S, Luben R, Welch A, Day N. Association of hemoglobin A1C with cardiovascular disease and mortality in adults: the European prospective investigation into cancer in Norfolk. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:413-20.
15. Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HAW, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000;321:405-12.
16. Gray RS, Fabsitz RR, Cowan LD, Lee ET, Howard BV, Savage PJ. Risk factor clustering in the insulin resistance syndrome, the strong heart study. Am J Epidemiol 1998;148:869-78.
17. Hopkins PN, Hunt SC, Wu LL, Williams GH, Williams RR. Hypertension, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance: links in a chain or spokes on a wheel? Curr Opin Lipidol 1996;7:241-53.
18. Coutinho M, Gerstein HC, Wang Y, Yusuf S. The relationship between glucose and incident cardiovascular events: a metaregression analysis of published data from 20 studies of 95,783 individuals followed for 12.4 years. Diabetes Care 1999;22:233-40.
19. Khaw K-T, Wareham N, Luben R, et al. Glycated haemoglobin, diabetes, and mortality in men in Norfolk cohort of European prospective investigation of cancer and nutrition (EPIC-Norfolk). BMJ 2001;322:1-6.
20. Koro CE, Bowlin SJ, Bourgeois N, Fedder DO. Glycemic control from 1988 to 2000 among U.S. adults diagnosed with type 2 diabetes: a preliminary report. Diabetes Care 2004;27:17-20.
21. Resnick HE, Foster GL, Bardsley J, Ratner RE. Achievement of American Diabetes Association clinical practice recommendations among U.S. adults with diabetes, 1999-2002: the national health and nutrition examination survey. Diabetes Care 2006;29:531-7.
22. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2007. Diabetes Care 2007;30(suppl 1):S4-41.
23. Haffner SM, Lehto S, Rönnemaa T, Pyörälä K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1998;339:229-34.
24. Fang J, Alderman MH. Impact of the increasing burden of diabetes on acute myocardial infarction in New York City: 1990-2000. Diabetes 2006;55:768-73.
25. Miettinen H, Lehto S, Salomaa V, et al. Impact of diabetes on mortality after the first myocardial infarction. Diabetes Care 1998;21:69-75.
26. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Implementation conference for ACE outpatient diabetes mellitus consensus conference recommendations: position Statement, February 2, 2005. Available from http://www.aace.com/pub/pdf/guidelines/ OutpatientImplementationPositionStatement.pdf. Accessed March 14, 2005.
27. Arauz-Pacheco C, Parrott MA, Raskin P. The treatment of hypertension in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2002;25:134-47.
28. Haffner SM. Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1998;21:160-78.
29. Haire-Joshu D, Glasgow RE, Tibbs TL. Smoking and diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999;22:1887-98.
30. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for the management of diabetes mellitus: the AACE system of intensive diabetes self-management - 2002 update. Endocr Pract 2002;8(suppl 1):40-82.
31. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2006. Diabetes Care 2006;29(suppl 1):S4-42.
32. Fisher M, McMurray J. Diabetic cardiology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2008.
33. Clark LT, McFarlane SI. Cardiovascular disease and diabetes. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2007.
34. Moser M, Sowers JR. Clinical management of cardiovascular risk factors in diabetes, 2nd ed. Caddo, OK: Professional Communications Inc., 2007.
35. Johnstone MT, Veves A. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease, 2nd ed. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2005.
36. Ball SG, White WB. Debate: angioteasin-converting enzyme inhibitors versus angiotensin II receptor blockers: a gap in evidence-based medicine. Am J Cardiol 2003;91:G15-21.
37. Gerich JE. Postprandial hyperglycemia and cardiovascular disease. Endocr Pract 2006;I2(suppl 1):47-51.
38. Fonseca VA, Theuma P, Mudaliar S, Leissinger CA, Clejan S, Henry RR. Diabetes treatments have differential effects on nontraditional cardiovascular risk factors. J Diabetes Complications 2006;20:14-20.
39. Cleveland JC Jr, Meldrum DR, Cain BS, Banerjee A, Harken AH. Oral sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agents prevent ischemic preconditioning in human myocardium: two paradoxes revisited. Circulation 1997;96:29-32.
40. Simpson SH, Majumdar SR, Tsuyuki RT, Eurich DT, Johnson JA. Dose-response relation between sulfonylurea drugs and mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a population-based cohort study Can Med Assoc J 2006;174:169-74.
41. Evans JMM, Ogston SA, Emslie-Smith A, Morris AD. Risk of mortality and adverse cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a comparison of patients treated with sulfonylureas and metformin. Diabetologia 2006;49:930-6.
42. + channel blocker. Circulation 1994;90:700-5.
43. Abbasi F, Chu JW, McLaughlin T, Lamendola C, Leary ET, Reaven GM. Effect of metformin treatment on multiple cardiovascular disease risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism 2004;53:159-64.
44. Pentikäinen PJ, Voutilainen E, Aro A, Uusitupa M, Penttilä I, Vapaatalo H. Cholesterol-lowering effect of metformin in combined hyperlipidemia: placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Ann Med 1990;22:307-12.
45. Derosa G, Gaddi AV, Ciccarelli L, et al. Long-term effect of glimepiride and rosiglitazone on non-conventional cardiovascular risk factors in metformin-treated patients affected by metabolic syndrome: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. J Int Med Res 2005;33:284-94.
46. Mocanu MM, Maddock HL, Baxter GF, Lawrence CL, Standen NB, Yellon DM. Glimepiride, a novel sulfonylurea, does not abolish myocardial protection afforded by either ischemic preconditioning or diazoxide. Circulation 2001;103:3111-16.
47. Bristol-Myers Squibb. Glucophage/Glucophage XR (metformin) package insert. Princeton, NJ; 2004.
48. Misbin RI, Green L, Stadel BV, Gueriguian JL, Gubbi A, Fleming GA. Lactic acidosis in patients with diabetes treated with metformin. N Engl J Med 1998;338:265-6.
49. Nesto RW, Bell D, Bonow RO, et al. Thiazolidinedione use, fluid retention, and congestive heart failure: a consensus statement from the American Heart Association and American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2004;27:256-63.
50. Raskin P, Rendell M, Riddle MC, Dole JF, Freed MI, Rosenstock J. A randomized trial of rosiglitazone therapy in patients with inadequately controlled insulin-treated type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1226-32.
51. Huang A, Raskin P. Thiazolidinediones and insulin: rationale for use and role of combination therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Treat Endocrinol 2005;4:205-20.
52. van der Kallen CJ, Voors-Pette C, Bouwman FG, et al. Evidence of insulin resistant lipid metabolism in adipose tissue in familial combined hyperlipidemia, but not type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis 2002;164:337-46.
53. Forlani S, Tomai F, De Paulis R, et al. Preoperative shift from glibenclamide to insulin is cardioprotective in diabetic patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 2004;45:117-22.
54. Crosbie AE, Vuylsteke A, Ritchie AJ, Latimer RD, Callingham BA. Inhibitory effects of glibenclamide on the contraction of human arterial conduits used in coronary artery bypass surgery. J Pharm Pharmacol 2000;52:333-40.
55. Vehkavaara S, Yki-Jarvinen H. 3.5 Years of insulin therapy with insulin glargine at bedtime markedly improves in vivo endothelial function in type 2 diabetes. Presented at the 62nd annual meeting of the American Diabetes Association, San Francisco, CA, June 14-18, 2002.
56. Ryysy L, Yki-Jarvinen H. Improvement of glycemic control by 1 year of insulin therapy leads to a sustained decrease in sE-selectin concentrations in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001;24:549-54.
57. Furnary AP, Wu Y, Bookin SO. Effect of hyperglycemia and continuous intravenous insulin infusions on outcomes of cardiac surgical procedures: the Portland diabetic project. Endocr Pract 2004;10(suppl 2):21-33.
58. Furnary AP, Braithwaite SS. Effects of outcome on in-hospital transition from intravenous insulin infusion to subcutaneous therapy. Am J Cardiol 2006;98:557-64.
59. + channel? Studies of contractile function after simulated ischemia in an atrial in vitro model. Circ Res 1995;77:1030-5.
60. + channel subtype selectivity of insulin secrelagogues for the coronary vasculature and the myocardium. Diabetes 2004;53(suppl 3):S156-64.
61. Meinert CL, Knatterud GL, Prout TE, Klimt CR. A study of the effects of hypoglycemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult-onset diabetes. II. Mortality results. Diabetes I970;19(suppl):789-830.
62. Rytter L, Troelsen S, Beck-Nielsen H. Prevalence and mortality of acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1985;8:230-4.
63. Kramer W, Muller G, Geisen K. Characterization of the molecular mode of action of the sulfonylurea, glimepiride, at β-cells. Horm Metab Res 1996;28:464-8.
64. Klepzig H, Kober G, Matter C, et al. Sulfonylureas and ischaemic preconditioning: a double-blind, placebo-controlled evaluation of glimepiride and glibenclamide. Eur Heart J 1999;20:439-46.
65. Lee T-M, Chou T-F. Impairment of myocardial protection in type 2 diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:531-7.
66. Fisman EZ, Tenenbaum A, Motro M, Adler Y. Oral antidiabetic therapy in patients with heart disease: a cardiologic standpoint. Herz 2004;29:290-8.
67. Fuhlendorff J, Rorsman P, Kofod H, et al. Stimulation of insulin release by repaglinide and glibenclamide involves both common and distinct processes. Diabetes 1998;47:345-51.
68. Meier JJ, Gallwitz B, Schmidt WE, Mugge A, Nauck MA. Is impairment of ischaemic preconditioning by sulfonylurea drugs clinically important? Heart 2004;90:9-12.
69. Kirpichnikov D, McFarlane SI, Sowers JR. Metformin: an update. Ann Intern Med 2002;137:25-33.
70. Masoudi FA, Wang Y, Inzucchi SE, et al. Metformin and thiazolidinedione use in Medicare patients with heart failure. JAMA 2003;290:81-5.
71. Parulkar AA, Pendergrass ML, Granda-Ayala R, Lee TR, Fonseca VA. Nonhypoglycemic effects of thiazolidinediones. Ann Intern Med 2001;134:61-71.
72. Haffner SM, Greenberg AS, Weston WM, Chen H, Williams K, Freed MI. Effect of rosiglitazone treatment on nontraditional markers of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation 2002;106:679-84.
73. Satoh N, Ogawa Y, Usui T, et al. Antiatherogenic effect of pioglitazone in type 2 diabetic patients irrespective of the responsiveness to its antidiabetic effect. Diabetes Care 2003;26:2493-9.
74. Richter B, Bandeira-Echtler E, Bergerhoff K, Clar C, Ebrahim SH. Pioglitazone for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;(4):CD006060:1-96.
75. Richter B, Bandeira-Echtler E, Bergerhoff K, Clar C, Ebrahim S. Rosiglitazone for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(2):CD006063.
76. He J, Ogden LG, Bazzano LA, Vupputuri S, Loria C, Whelton PK. Risk factors for congestive heart failure in U.S. men and women: NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:996-1002.
77. Belcher G, Michel J. Tolerability profile of pioglitazone in combination with a sulphonylurea or metformin in controlled clinical trials [abstract]. Diabetes 2001;50 (suppl 2):A416.
78. Takeda Chemicals. Actos (pioglitazone hydrochloride) package insert. Lincolnshire, IL; 2004.
79. Schiffrin EL. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and cardiovascular remodeling. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005;288:H1037-43.
80. Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med 2007;356:2457-71. (Erratum in N Engl J Med 2007;357:100.)
81. Home PD, Pocock SJ, Beck-Nielsen H, et al. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes: an interim analysis. N Engl J Med 2007;357:1-11.
82. Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD. Thiazolidinediones and heart failure: a teleo-analysis. Diabetes Care 2007;30:2148-53.
83. Diamond GA, Bax L, Kaul S. Uncertain effects of rosiglitazone on the risk for myocardial infarction and cardiovascular death. Ann Intern Med 2007;147:578-81. Available from http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/0000605- 200710160-00I82v1. Accessed August 10, 2007.
84. McGuire DK. Rosiglitazone and cardiovascular disease: an epidemiologist's perspective. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2007;4:77-9.
85. Marx N. Rosiglitazone and cardiovascular disease: a cardiologist's perspective. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2007;4:80-1.
86. United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Rosiglitazone information: FDA alert. Available from http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/rosiglitazone/default.htm. Accessed September 12, 2007.
87. Hellman R. The perfect storm: drug safety and rosiglitazone. Endocr Pract 2007;13:217-18.
88. Bell DS. Inflammation, insulin resistance, infection, diabetes, and atherosclerosis. Endocr Pract 2000;6:272-6.
89. LeRoith D, Fonseca V, Vinik A. Metabolic memory in diabetes: focus on insulin. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2005;21:85-90.
90. Despres J-P, Lamarche B, Mauriège P, et al. Hyperinsulinemia as an independent risk factor for ischemic heart disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:952-7.
91. Lakka HM, Lakka TA, Tuomilehto J, Sivenius J, Salonen JT. Hyperinsulinemia and the risk of cardiovascular death and acute coronary and cerebrovascular events in men: the Kuopio ischaemic heart disease risk factor study. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1160-8.
92. Dandona P, Aljada A, Chaudhuri A, Bandyopadhyay A. The potential influence of inflammation and insulin resistance on the pathogenesis and treatment of atherosclerosis-related complications in type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:2422-9.
93. Ferrara A, Barrett-Connor EL, Edelstein SL. Hyperinsulinemia does not increase the risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in elderly men or women without diabetes: the Rancho Bernardo study, 1984-1991. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140:857-69.
94. Dandona P, Aljada A, Mohanty P, Ghanim H, Bandyopadhyay A, Chaudhuri A. Insulin suppresses plasma concentration of vascular endothelial growth factor and matrix metalloproteinase-9. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3310-14.
95. Dandona P, Aljada A, Mohanty P, et al. Insulin inhibits intranuclear nuclear factor κB and stimulates IκB in mononuclear cells in obese subjects: evidence for an antiinflammatory effect? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:3257-65.
96. Vehkavaara S, Makimattila S, Schlenzka A, Vakkilainen J, Westerbacka J, Yki-Jarvinen H. Insulin therapy improves endothelial function in type 2 diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:545-50.
97. Vehkavaara S, Yki-Jarvinen H. 3.5 Years of insulin therapy with insulin glargine improves in vivo endothelial function in type 2 diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004;24:325-30.
98. Lazar HL, Chipkin SR, Fitzgerald CA, Bao Y, Cabral H, Apstein CS. Tight glycemic control in diabetic coronary artery bypass graft patients improves perioperative outcomes and decreases recurrent ischemic events. Circulation 2004;109:1497-502.
99. Malmberg K, for the DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. Prospective randomised study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. BMJ 1997;314:1512-15.
100. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 2006;354:449-61.
101. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998;352:837-53.
102. sanofi-aventis U.S. Lantus (insulin glargine [rDNA origin] injection) prescribing information. Bridgewater, NJ; 2006.
103. Novo Nordisk. Levemir (insulin detemir [rDNA origin] injection) package insert. Princeton, NJ; 2005.
104. Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, Gerich J, for the Insulin Glargine 4002 Study Investigators. The treat-to-target trial: randomized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral therapy of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3080-6.
105. Lepore M, Pampanelli S, Fanelli C, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of subcutaneous injection of long-acting human insulin analog glargine, NPH insulin, and ultralente human insulin and continuous subcutaneous infusion of insulin lispro. Diabetes 2000;49:2142-8.
106. Raslová K, Bogoev M, Raz I, Leth G, Gall MA, Hâncu N. Insulin detemir and insulin aspart: a promising basal-bolus regimen for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2004;66:193-201.
107. Hermansen K, Davies M, Derezinski T, Martinez Ravn G, Clauson P, Home P. A 26-week, randomized, parallel, treatto-target trial comparing insulin detemir with NPH insulin as add-on therapy to oral glucose-lowering drugs in insulin-naive people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006;29:1269-74.
108. Lowe LP, Liu K, Greenland P, Metzger BE, Dyer AR, Stamler J. Diabetes, asymptomatic hyperglycemia, and 22-year mortality in black and white men. The Chicago Heart Association detection project in industry study Diabetes Care 1997;20:163-9.
109. Donahue RP, Abbott RD, Reed DM, Yano K. Postchallenge glucose concentration and coronary heart disease in men of Japanese ancestry: Honolulu heart program. Diabetes 1987;36:689-92.
110. Hanefeld M, Fischer S, Julius U, et al. Risk factors for myocardial infarction and death in newly detected NIDDM: the diabetes intervention study, 11-year follow-up. Diabetologia 1996;39:1577-83.
111. The DECODE Study Group on Behalf of the European Diabetes Epidemiology Group. Glucose tolerance and mortality: comparison of WHO and American Diabetes Association diagnostic criteria. Lancet 1999;354:617-21.
112. Novo Nordisk. NovoLog (insulin aspart [rDNA origin] injection) package insert. Princeton, NJ; 2005.
113. Aventis Pharmaceuticals Inc. Apidra (insulin glulisine [rDNA origin] injection) package insert. Kansas City, MO; 2005.
114. Eli Lilly and Company. Humalog (insulin lispro injection [rDNA origin]) patient information. Indianapolis, IN; 2005.
115. Bergenstal R, Johnson ML, Powers MA, Wynne AG, Vlajnic A, Hollander PA. Using a simple algorithm (ALG) to adjust mealtime glulisine (GLU) based on pre-prandial glucose patterns is a safe and effective alternative to carbohydrate counting (Carb Count). Presented at the 66th annual scientific sessions of the American Diabetes Association, Washington, DC, June 5-9, 2006.
116. DeFronzo RA, Bergenstal RM, Cefalu WT, et al. Efficacy of inhaled insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes not controlled with diet and exercise: a 12-week, randomized, comparative trial. Diabetes Care 2005;28:1922-8.
117. Rosenstock J, Zinman B, Murphy LJ, et al. Inhaled insulin improves glycemic control when substituted for or added to oral combination therapy in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2005;143:549-58.
118. Wright A, Burden ACF, Paisey RB, Cull CA, Holman RR, for the U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Sulfonylurea inadequacy: efficacy of addition of insulin over 6 years in patients with type 2 diabetes in the U.K. prospective diabetes study (UKPDS 57). Diabetes Care 2002;25:330-6.
119. Yki-Jarvinen H, Ryysy L, Nikkilä K, Tulokas T, Vanamo R, Heikkila M. Comparison of bedtime insulin regimens in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:389-96.
120. Kennedy L, Herman WH, Strange P, Harris A. Impact of active versus usual algorithmic titration of basal insulin and point-of-care versus laboratory measurement of HbA1C on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: The glycemic optimization with algorithms and labs at point of care (GOAL A1C) trial. Diabetes Care 2006;29:1-8.
121. Amylin Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Byetta (exenatide) package insert. San Diego, CA; 2007.
122. Amylin Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Symlin (pramlintide acetate injection) package insert. San Diego, CA; 2005.
123. Blonde L, Klein EJ, Han J, et al. Interim analysis of the effects of exenatide treatment on A1C, weight and cardiovascular risk factors over 82 weeks in 314 overweight patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2006;8:436-47.
124. Ratner RE, Maggs D, Nielsen LL, et al. Long-term effects of exenatide therapy over 82 weeks on glycaemic control and weight in over-weight metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Obes Metab 2006;8:419-28.
125. Charbonnel B, Karasik A, Liu J, Wu M, Meininger G. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peplidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin added to ongoing metformin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin alone. Diabetes Care 2006;29:2638-43.
126. Rosenstock J, Brazg R, Andryuk PJ, McCrary Sisk C, Lu K, Stein P. Addition of sitagliptin to pioglitazone improved glycemic control with neutral weight effect over 24 weeks in inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Presented at the 66th annual scientific sessions of the American Diabetes Association, Washington, DC, June 5-9, 2006.
127. Nonaka K, Kakikawa T, Sato A, et al. Twelve-week efficacy and tolerability of sitagliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-4) inhibitor, in Japanese patients with T2DM. Presented at the 66th annual scientific sessions of the American Diabetes Association, Washington, DC, June 5-9, 2006.
128. Merck and Co., Inc. Janumet (sitagliptin-metformin HCl tablets) prescribing information. Whitehouse Station, NJ; 2007.