Pediatric stroke: Rehabilitation of focal injury in the developing brain

NeuroRehabilitation

Volumn 22, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 371-382

  Kirton, Adam ^a   Westmacott, Robyn ^a   Deveber, Gabrielle ^a  

^a ALBERTA CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cerebrovascular disease; Child; Hemiplegia; Pediatric stroke; Rehabilitation

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN INJURY; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CONVALESCENCE; HUMAN; MORBIDITY; NEUROIMAGING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SKILL; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VALIDATION PROCESS;

EID: 37549028866     PISSN: 10538135     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3233/nre-2007-22504     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. R.J. Adams, V.C. McKie, L. Hsu, B. Files, E. Vichinsky et al., Prevention of a first stroke by transfusions in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography, New England Journal of Medicine 339 (1998), 5-11.
2. S.W. Anderson, A. Bechara, H. Damasio, D. Tranel and A.R. Damasio, Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex, Nat Neurosci 2 (1999), 1032-1037.
3. Y. Aoyagi and A. Tsubahara, Therapeutic orthosis and electrical stimulation for upper extremity hemiplegia after stroke: a review of effectiveness based on evidence, Top Stroke Rehabil 11 (2004), 9-15.
4. D.M. Aram and J.A. Eisele, Limits to a left hemisphere explanation for specific language impairment, J Speech Hear Res 37 (1994), 824-830.
5. R. Askalan, S. Laughlin, S. Mayank, A. Chan, D. MacGregor et al., Chickenpox and stroke in childhood: a study of frequency and causation, Stroke 32 (2001), 1257-1262.
6. M.T. Banich, S.C. Levine, H. Kim and P. Huttenlocher, The effects of developmental factors on IQin hemiplegic children, Neuropsychologia 28 (1990), 35-47.
7. E. Bates, J. Reilly, B. Wulfeck, N. Dronkers, M. Opie et al., Differential effects of unilateral lesions on language production in children and adults, Brain Lang 79 (2001), 223-265.
8. E. Bates, S. Vicari and D. Trauner, Neural mediation of language development: Perspectives from lesion studies of infants and children, H.Tager-Flausberg (1999), 533-582.
9. E.A. Bates, Explaining and interpreting deficits in language development across clinical groups: where do we go from here? Brain Lang 88 (2004), 248-253.
10. A. Bechara, H. Damasio, A.R. Damasio and G.P. Lee, Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making, J Neurosci 19 (1999), 5473-5481.
11. S. Benseler and R. Schneider, Central nervous system vasculitis in children, Curr Opin Rheumatol 16 (2004), 43-50.
12. J.P. Boardman, V. Ganesan, M.A. Rutherford, D.E. Saunders, E. Mercuri et al., Magnetic resonance image correlates of hemiparesis after neonatal and childhood middle cerebral artery stroke, Pediatrics 115 (2005), 321-326.
13. P.S. Boggio, M. Alonso-Alonso, C.G. Mansur, S.P. Rigonatti, G. Schlaug et al., Hand function improvement with low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in a severe case of stroke, Am J Phys Med Rehabil 85 (2006), 927-930.
14. B.R. Bowman, L.L. Baker and R.L.Waters, Positional feedback and electrical stimulation: an automated treatment for the hemiplegic wrist, Arch Phys Med Rehabil 60 (1979), 497-502.
15. A. Brashear, M.F. Gordon, E. Elovic, V.D. Kassicieh, C. Marciniak et al., Intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin for the treatment of wrist and finger spasticity after a stroke, N Engl J Med 347 (2002), 395-400.
16. J. Cauraugh, K. Light, S. Kim, M. Thigpen and A. Behrman, Chronic motor dysfunction after stroke: recovering wrist and finger extension by electromyography-triggered neuromuscular stimulation, Stroke 31 (2000), 1360-1364.
17. S. Chabrier, B. Husson, P. Lasjaunias, P. Landrieu and M. Tardieu, Stroke in childhood: outcome and recurrence risk by mechanism in 59 patients, J Child Neurol 15 (2000), 290-294.
18. S. Chabrier, P. Lasjaunias, B. Husson, P. Landrieu and M. Tardieu, Ischaemic stroke from dissection of the craniocervical arteries in childhood: report of 12 patients, Eur J Paediatr Neurol 7 (2003), 39-42.
19. S. Chabrier, G. Rodesch, P. Lasjaunias, M. Tardieu, P. Landrieu et al., Transient cerebral arteriopathy: a disorder recognized by serial angiograms in children with stroke, J Child Neurol 13 (1998), 27-32.
20. J. Chae, F. Bethoux, T. Bohine, L. Dobos, T. Davis et al., Neuromuscular stimulation for upper extremity motor and functional recovery in acute hemiplegia, Stroke 29 (1998), 975-979.
21. S.B. Chapman, J.E. Max, J.F. Gamino, J.H. McGlothlin and S.N. Cliff, Discourse plasticity in children after stroke: age at injury and lesion effects, Pediatr Neurol 29 (2003), 34-41.
22. J. Charles and A.M. Gordon, A critical review of constraint-induced movement therapy and forced use in children with hemiplegia, Neural Plast 12 (2005), 245-261.
23. J. Charles and A.M. Gordon, Development of hand-arm bimanual intensive training (HABIT) for improving bimanual coordination in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy, Dev Med Child Neurol 48 (2006), 931-936.
24. J.R. Charles, S.L. Wolf, J.A. Schneider and A.M. Gordon, Efficacy of a child-friendly form of constraint-induced movement therapy in hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized control trial, Dev Med Child Neurol 48 (2006), 635-642.
25. A.M. Chilosi, P.P. Cipriani, B. Bertuccelli, P.L. Pfanner and P.G. Cioni, Early cognitive and communication development in children with focal brain lesions, J Child Neurol 16 (2001), 309-316.
26. A.M. Chilosi, C. Pecini, P. Cipriani, P. Brovedani, D. Brizzolara et al., Atypical language lateralization and early linguistic development in children with focal brain lesions, Dev Med Child Neurol 47 (2005), 725-730.
27. J.P. Collet, M. Vanasse, P. Marois, M. Amar, J. Goldberg et al., Hyperbaric oxygen for children with cerebral palsy: a randomised multicentre trial. HBO-CP Research Group, Lancet 357 (2001), 582-586.
28. L.D. Cranberg, C.M. Filley, E.J. Hart and M.P. Alexander, Acquired aphasia in childhood: clinical and CT investigations, Neurology 37 (1987), 1165-1172.
29. L.S. de Vries, G.J. van der, I.C. van Haastert and F. Groenendaal, Prediction of outcome in new-born infants with arterial ischaemic stroke using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging, Neuropediatrics 36 (2005), 12-20.
30. B.J. Delsing, C.E. Catsman-Berrevoets and I.M. Appel, Early prognostic indicators of outcome in ischemic childhood stroke, Pediatr Neurol 24 (2001), 283-289.
31. M. Dennis, Discourse in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorder, Early Focal Brain Injury, or Childhood Acquired Brain Injury, Brain Lang 61 (1998), 305-307.
32. M. Dennis, Developmental plasticity in children: the role of biological risk, development, time, and reserve, J Commun Disord 33 (2000), 321-331.
33. G. deVeber, Canadian Paediatric Ischemic Stroke Study Group, Canadian Paediatric Ischemic Stroke Registry: Analysis of children with arterial ischemic stroke, Annals of Neurology 48 (2000), 514-.
34. G. deVeber, D. MacGregor, R. Curtis, S. Friefeld, P. Anderson et al., Neurological Outcome in Survivors of Neonatal Arterial Ischemic Stroke, Pediatric Research 53 (2003), 537A-.
35. G. deVeber, In pursuit of evidence-based treatments for paediatric stroke: the UK and Chest guidelines, Lancet Neurol 4 (2005), 432-436.
36. G. deVeber and M. Andrew, Canadian Pediatric Ischemic Stroke Study Group, Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in children, New England Journal of Medicine 345 (2001), 417-423.
37. G. deVeber, D. MacGregor, R. Curtis and S. Mayank, Neurologic outcome in survivors of childhood arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis, Journal of Child Neurology 15 (2000), 316-324.
38. B.H. Dobkin, Strategies for stroke rehabilitation, Lancet Neurol 3 (2004), 528-536.
39. C. Donnellan, D. Hevey, A. Hickey and D. O'Neill, Defining and quantifying coping strategies after stroke: a review, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77 (2006), 1208-1218.
40. J. Duque, F. Hummel, P. Celnik, N. Murase, R. Mazzocchio et al., Transcallosal inhibition in chronic subcortical stroke, Neuroimage 28 (2005), 940-946.
41. A.C. Eliasson, L. Krumlinde-sundholm, K. Shaw and C. Wang, Effects of constraint-induced movement therapy in young children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: an adapted model, Dev Med Child Neurol 47 (2005), 266-275.
42. R.I. Farb, J.N. Scott, R.A. Willinsky, W.J. Montanera, G.A. Wright et al., Intracranial venous system: gadolinium-enhanced three-dimensional MR venography with auto-triggered elliptic centric-ordered sequence - initial experience, Radiology 226 (2003), 203-209.
43. H.M. Feldman, A.L. Holland, S.S. Kemp and J.E. Janosky, Language development after unilateral brain injury, Brain Lang 42 (1992), 89-102.
44. F. Fregni, P.S. Boggio, C.G. Mansur, T.Wagner, M.J. Ferreira et al., Transcranial direct current stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients, Neuroreport 16 (2005), 1551-1555.
45. F. Fregni, P.S. Boggio, A.C. Valle, R.R. Rocha, J. Duarte et al., A sham-controlled trial of a 5-day course of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients, Stroke 37 (2006), 2115-2122.
46. S. Friefeld, O. Yeboah, J.E. Jones and G. deVeber, Health-related quality of life and its relationship to neurological outcome in child survivors of stroke, CNS Spectr 9 (2004), 465-475.
47. H.J. Fullerton, S.C. Johnston and W.S. Smith, Arterial dissection and stroke in children, Neurology 57 (2001), 1155-1160.
48. L.V. Gabis, R. Yangala and N.J. Lenn, Time lag to diagnosis of stroke in children, Pediatrics 110 (2002), 924-928.
49. K.T. Gallagher, B. Shaham, A. Reiff, A. Tournay, J.P. Villablanca et al., Primary angiitis of the central nervous system in children: 5 cases, J Rheumatol 28 (2001), 616-623.
50. V. Ganesan, A. Hogan, N. Shack, A. Gordon, E. Isaacs et al, Outcome after ischaemic stroke in childhood, Developmental Medicine and Childhood Neurology 42 (2000), 455-461.
51. V. Ganesan, M. Prengler, M.A. McShane, A.M. Wade and F.J. Kirkham, Investigation of risk factors in children with arterial ischemic stroke, Ann Neurol 53 (2003), 167-173.
52. M.A. Garvey and D.L. Gilbert, Transcranial magnetic stimulation in children, Eur J Paediatr Neurol 8 (2004), 7-19.
53. D.L. Gilbert, M.A. Garvey, A.S. Bansal, T. Lipps, J. Zhang et al., Should transcranial magnetic stimulation research in children be considered minimal risk? Clin Neurophysiol 115 (2004), 1730-1739.
54. M.R. Golomb, G.A. deVeber, D.L. MacGregor, T. Domi, H. Whyte et al, Independent walking after neonatal arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis, J Child Neurol 18 (2003), 530-536.
55. M.R. Golomb, P.T. Dick, D.L. MacGregor, D.C. Armstrong, G.A. deVeber, Cranial ultrasonography has a low sensitivity for detecting arterial ischemic stroke in term neonates, J Child Neurol 18 (2003), 98-103.
56. M.R. Golomb, S. Hune, D.L. MacGregor and G.A. deVeber, Alternative therapy use by Chinese-Canadian children with stroke and cerebrovascular disease, J Child Neurol 18 (2003), 714-717.
57. M.R. Golomb, D.L. MacGregor, T. Domi, D.C. Armstrong, B.W. McCrindle et al., Presumed pre- or perinatal arterial ischemic stroke: risk factors and outcomes, Annals of Neurology 50 (2001), 163-168.
58. R. Goodman and P. Graham, Psychiatric problems in children with hemiplegia: cross sectional epidemiological survey, British Medical Journal 312 (1996), 1065-1069.
59. R. Goodman and C. Yude, IQ and its predictors in childhood hemiplegia, Dev Med Child Neurol 38 (1996), 881-890.
60. A.L. Gordon, V. Ganesan, A. Towell and F.J. Kirkham, Functional outcome following stroke in children, J Child Neurol 17 (2002), 429-434.
61. A.M. Gordon, J. Charles and S.L. Wolf, Efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy on involved upper-extremity use in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy is not age-dependent, Pediatrics 117 (2006), e363-e373.
62. P. Hardy, J.P. Collet, J. Goldberg, T. Ducruet, M. Vanasse et al., Neuropsychological effects of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in cerebral palsy, Dev Med Child Neurol 44 (2002), 436-446.
63. L. Hertz-Pannier, C. Chiron, I. Jambaque, V. Renaux-Kieffer, P.F. Van de Moortele et al., Late plasticity for language in a child's non-dominant hemisphere: a pre- and post-surgery fMRI study, Brain 125 (2002), 361-372.
64. R. Hetherington, L. Tuff, P. Anderson, B. Miles and G. deVeber, Short-term intellectual outcome after arterial ischemic stroke and sinovenous thrombosis in childhood and infancy, Journal of Child Neurology (2005).
65. A.M. Hogan, F.J. Kirkham and E.B. Isaacs, Intelligence after stroke in childhood: review of the literature and suggestions for future research [In Process Citation], Journal of Child Neurology 15 (2000), 325-332.
66. J.V. Hunter, New radiographic techniques to evaluate cerebrovascular disorders in children, Semin Pediatr Neurol 7 (2000), 261-277.
67. J.S. Hutchison, R. Ichord, A.M. Guerguerian and G. deVeber, Cerebrovascular disorders, Semin Pediatr Neurol 11 (2004), 139-146.
68. K. Ishii, M. Isono, H. Kobayashi and T. Kamida, Temporal profile of angiographical stages of moyamoya disease: when does moyamoya disease progress?, Neurol Res 25 (2003), 405-410.
69. J.S. Janowsky and R. Nass, Early language development in infants with cortical and subcortical perinatal brain injury, J Dev Behav Pediatr 8 (1987), 3-7.
70. A. Khadilkar, K. Phillips, N. Jean, C. Lamothe, S. Milne et al., Ottawa panel evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for post-stroke rehabilitation, Top Stroke Rehabil 13 (2006), 1-269.
71. E.M. Khedr, M.A. Ahmed, N. Fathy and J.C. Rothwell, Therapeutic trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation after acute ischemic stroke, Neurology 65 (2005), 466-468.
72. F.d.G.C.A.S.R.G.V.P.M.N.-G.U. Kirkham, Recurrent Arterial Ischemic Stroke: The Role of Prothrombotic Disorders, Annals of Neurology 54(Supplment 7) (2003), S110.
73. A. Kirton, M. Shroff, T.Visvanathan and G. deVeber, Quantified corticospinal tract diffusion restriction predicts neonatal stroke outcome, Stroke (2007).
74. A. Kirton and G. deVeber, Therapeutic approaches and advances in pediatric stroke, NeuroRx 3 (2006), 133-142.
75. C.H. Kwak and J. Jankovic, Tourettism and dystonia after subcortical stroke, Mov Disord 17 (2002), 821-825.
76. Y.S. Lam, D.W. Man, S.F. Tam and P.L. Weiss, Virtual reality training for stroke rehabilitation, NeuroRehabilitation 21 (2006), 245-253.
77. N.A. Lannin and R.D. Herbert, Is hand splinting effective for adults following stroke? A systematic review and methodologic critique of published research, Clin Rehabil 17 (2003), 807-816.
78. A.E. Lansing, J.E. Max, D.C. Delis, P.T. Fox, J. Lancaster et al., Verbal learning and memory after childhood stroke, J Int Neuropsychol Soc 10 (2004), 742-752.
79. S. Lanthier, A. Lortie, J. Michaud, R. Laxer, V. Jay et al., Isolated angiitis of the CNS in children, Neurology 56 (2001), 837-842.
80. J. Lee, L.A. Croen, C. Lindan, K.B. Nash, C.K. Yoshida et al., Predictors of outcome in perinatal arterial stroke: A population-based study, Ann Neurol 58 (2005), 303-308.
81. P. Lum, D. Reinkensmeyer, R. Mahoney, W.Z. Rymer and C. Burgar, Robotic devices for movement therapy after stroke: current status and challenges to clinical acceptance, Top Stroke Rehabil 8 (2002), 40-53.
82. J. Lynch, D. Hirtz, G. deVeber and K. Nelson, Report of the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke workshop on perinatal and childhood stroke, Pediatr (submitted) (2001).
83. J.K. Lynch, Cerebrovascular disorders in children, Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 4 (2004), 129-138.
84. J.K. Lynch, D.G. Hirtz, G. deVeber, K.B. Nelson, Report of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke workshop on perinatal and childhood stroke, Pediatrics 109 (2002), 116-123.
85. C.G. Mansur, F. Fregni, P.S. Boggio, M. Riberto, J. Gallucci-Neto et al., A sham stimulation-controlled trial of rTMS of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients, Neurology 64 (2005), 1802-1804.
86. V.A. Marchman, C. Saccuman and B. Wulfeck, Productive use of the English past tense in children with focal brain injury and specific language impairment, Brain Lang 88 (2004), 202-214.
87. I.P. Martins, Childhood aphasias, Clin Neurosci 4 (1997), 73-77.
88. J.L. Mas, C. Arquizan, C. Lamy, M. Zuber, L. Cabanes et al., Recurrent cerebrovascular events associated with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both, N Engl J Med 345 (2001), 1740-1746.
89. J.E. Max, Effect of side of lesion on neuropsychological performance in childhood stroke, J Int Neuropsychol Soc 10 (2004), 698-708.
90. J.E. Max, P.T. Fox, J.L. Lancaster, P. Kochunov, K. Mathews et al., Putamen lesions and the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptomatology, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41 (2002), 563-571.
91. J.E. Max, K. Mathews, A.E. Lansing, B.A. Robertson, P.T. Fox et al., Psychiatric disorders after childhood stroke, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41 (2002), 555-562.
92. J.E. Max, K. Mathews, F.F. Manes, B.A. Robertson, P.T. Fox et al., Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and neurocognitive correlates after childhood stroke, J Int Neuropsychol Soc 9 (2003), 815-829.
93. J.E. Max, D.A. Robin, H.G. Taylor, K.O. Yeates, P.T. Fox et al., Attention function after childhood stroke, J Int Neuropsychol Soc 10 (2004), 976-986.
94. A. McLinden, A.D. Baird, R. Westmacott, P. Anderson and G. deVeber, Early Cognitive Outcome after Neonatal Stroke, Journal of Child Neurology (2007), in press.
95. P. Monagle, A. Chan, P. Massicotte, E. Chalmers and A.D. Michelson, Antithrombotic Therapy in Children: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy, Chest 126 (2004), 645S-687S.
96. P. Monagle and T.R. Karl, Thromboembolic problems after the Fontan operation, Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Pediatr Card Surg Annu 5 (2002), 36-47.
97. S.C. Mosch, J.E. Max and D. Tranel, A matched lesion analysis of childhood versus adult-onset brain injury due to unilateral stroke: another perspective on neural plasticity and recovery of social functioning, Cogn Behav Neurol 18 (2005), 5-17.
98. M. Muller-Bolla, J.P. Collet, T. Ducruet and A. Robinson, Side effects of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in children with cerebral palsy, Undersea Hyperb Med 33 (2006), 237-244.
99. M.A. Naeser, P.I. Martin, M. Nicholas, E.H. Baker, H. Seekins et al., Improved picture naming in chronic aphasia after TMS to part of right Broca's area: an open-protocol study, Brain Lang 93 (2005), 95-105.
100. R. Nass, Language development in children with congenital strokes, Semin Pediatr Neurol 4 (1997), 109-116.
101. R.D. Nass and D. Trauner, Social and affective impairments are important recovery after acquired stroke in childhood, CNS Spectr 9 (2004), 420-434.
102. K.B. Nelson and J.K. Lynch, Stroke in newborn infants, Lancet Neurol 3 (2004), 150-158.
103. G. Nuthall, M. Seear, M. Lepawsky, D. Wensley, P. Skippen et al., Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for cerebral palsy: two complications of treatment, Pediatrics 106(6) (2000), E80.
104. Paediatric Stroke Working Group. Stroke in childhood. Available at: http://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/pubs/books/childstroke/childstroke_guidelines.pdf.
105. A. Pascual-Leone, J.M. Tormos, J. Keenan, F. Tarazona, C. Canete et al., Study and modulation of human cortical excitability with transcranial magnetic stimulation, J Clin Neurophysiol 15 (1998), 333-343.
106. C.H. Pegelow, E.A. Macklin, F.G. Moser, W.C. Wang, J.A. Bello et al., Longitudinal changes in brain magnetic resonance imaging findings in children with sickle cell disease, Blood 99 (2002), 3014-3018.
107. M.B. Popovic, D.B. Popovic, T. Sinkjaer, A. Stefanovic and L. Schwirtlich, Clinical evaluation of Functional Electrical Therapy in acute hemiplegic subjects, J Rehabil Res Dev 40 (2003), 443-453.
108. J. Powell, A.D. Pandyan, M. Granat, M. Cameron and D.J. Stott, Electrical stimulation of wrist extensors in poststroke hemiplegia, Stroke 30 (1999), 1384-1389.
109. J. Reilly, M. Losh, U. Bellugi and B. Wulfeck, "Frog, where are you?" Narratives in children with specific language impairment, early focal brain injury, and Williams syndrome, Brain Lang 88 (2004), 229-247.
110. D. Riva and L. Cazzaniga, Late effects of unilateral brain lesions sustained before and after age one, Neuropsychologia 24 (1986), 423-428.
111. S.L. Rogers, C.L. Coe and K. Hartke, Cognitive impairment after unilateral hemispheric injury of congenital or adult origin, Am J Occup Ther 56 (2002), 191-201.
112. P. Rosenbaum, Controversial treatment of spasticity: exploring alternative therapies for motor function in children with cerebral palsy, J Child Neurol 18(Suppl 1) (2003), S89-S94.
113. P.M. Rossini and F. Pauri, Neuromagnetic integrated methods tracking human brain mechanisms of sensorimotor areas "plastic" reorganization, Brain Res Rev (2000), 131-154.
114. T.A. Sandson, D.S. Manoach, B.H. Price, D. Rentz and S. Weintraub, Right hemisphere learning disability associated with left hemisphere dysfunction: anomalous dominance and development, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 57 (1994), 1129-1132.
115. G. Sebire, H. Fullerton, E. Riou and G. deVeber, Toward the definition of cerebral arteriopathies of childhood, Curr Opin Pediatr 16 (2004), 617-622.
116. G. Sebire, B. Tabarki, D.E. Saunders, I. Leroy, R. Liesner et al., Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in children: risk factors, presentation, diagnosis and outcome, Brain 128 (2005), 477-489.
117. R.A. Shellhaas, S.E. Smith, E. O'Tool, D.J. Licht and R.N. Ichord, Mimics of childhood stroke: characteristics of a prospective cohort, Pediatrics 118 (2006), 704-709.
118. M. Shroff and G. deVeber, Sinovenous thrombosis in children, Neuroimaging Clin N Am 13 (2003), 115-138.
119. D.K. Sommerfeld, E.U. Eek, A.K. Svensson, L.W. Holmqvist and M.H. von Arbin, Spasticity after stroke: its occurrence and association with motor impairments and activity limitations, Stroke 35 (2004), 134-139.
120. R.G. Steen, X. Xiong, J.W. Langston and K.J. Helton, Brain injury in children with sickle cell disease: prevalence and etiology, Ann Neurol 54 (2003), 564-572.
121. J. Stiles, Neural plasticity and cognitive development, Dev Neuropsychol 18 (2000), 237-272.
122. E. Taub, S.L. Ramey, S. DeLuca and K. Echols, Efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy for children with cerebral palsy with asymmetric motor impairment, Pediatrics 113 (2004), 305-312.
123. R. Teasell, N. Bayona, K. Salter, C. Hellings and J. Bitensky, Progress in clinical neurosciences: stroke recovery and rehabilitation, Can J Neurol Sci 33 (2006), 357-364.
124. M.H. Teicher, C.M. Anderson, A. Polcari, C.A. Glod, L.C. Maas et al., Functional deficits in basal ganglia of children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder shown with functional magnetic resonance imaging relaxometry, Nat Med 6 (2000), 470-473.
125. D.J. Thal, V. Marchman, J. Stiles, D. Aram, D. Trauner et al., Early lexical development in children with focal brain injury, Brain Lang 40 (1991), 491-527.
126. D.A. Trauner, R. Nass and A. Ballantyne, Behavioural profiles of children and adolescents after pre- or perinatal unilateral brain damage, Brain 124 (2001), 995-1002.
127. H.R. Van Dongen, P.F. Paquier, J. Raes and W.L. Creten, An analysis of spontaneous conversational speech fluency in children with acquired aphasia, Cortex 30 (1994), 619-633.
128. A. Van Hout, Acquired aphasia in children, Semin Pediatr Neurol 4 (1997), 102-108.
129. F. Vargha-Khadem, E. Isaacs and V. Muter, A review of cognitive outcome after unilateral lesions sustained during childhood, J Child Neurol 9(Suppl 2) (1994), 67-73.
130. E.M. Vikingstad, Y. Cao, A.J. Thomas, A.F. Johnson, G.M. Malik et al., Language hemispheric dominance in patients with congenital lesions of eloquent brain, Neurosurgery 47 (2000), 562-570.
131. B.T. Volpe, H.I. Krebs, N. Hogan, O.L. Edelstein, C. Diels et al., A novel approach to stroke rehabilitation: robot-aided sensorimotor stimulation, Neurology 54 (2000), 1938-1944.
132. N.S. Ward, Functional reorganization of the cerebral motor system after stroke, Curr Opin Neurol 17 (2004), 725-730.
133. R. Westmacott, V. Barry, D. MacGregor and G.A. deVeber, Age at stroke and involvement of cortex modulate cognitive outcome in children with basal ganglia infarcts, Annual Meeting of The Society for Pediatric Research (2007).
134. R. Westmacott, V. Barry, D. MacGregor and G.A. deVeber, Intellectual function in preschool and school-aged children with a history of acute neonatal stroke, American Heart Association Annual Stroke Conference (2007).
135. J.K.Willis, A. Morello, A. Davie, J.C. Rice and J.T. Bennett, Forced use treatment of childhood hemiparesis, Pediatrics 110 (2002), 94-96.
136. S.L. Wolf, C.J. Winstein, J.P. Miller, E. Taub, G. Uswatte et al., Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke: the EXCITE randomized clinical trial, Journal of the American Medical Association 296 (2006), 2095-2104.
137. B.B. Wulfeck, D.A. Trauner and P.A. Tallal, Neurologic, cognitive, and linguistic features of infants after early stroke, Pediatr Neurol 7 (1991), 266-269.
138. J.S. Yang, D.P. Yong and P. Hartlage, Seizures associated with stroke in childhood, Pediatric Neurology 12 (1995), 136-138.