Thyroid autoimmunity in the current iodine environment

Thyroid

Volumn 17, Issue 8, 2007, Pages 729-739

  Papanastasiou, Labrini ^a   Vatalas, Ioannis Anastasios ^a   Koutras, Demetrios A ^a   Mastorakos, George ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

^b NONE   (Greece)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; EPITOPE; IODINATED POPPYSEED OIL; IODINE; OXYGEN RADICAL; THYROGLOBULIN; THYROGLOBULIN ANTIBODY; THYROID ANTIBODY;

ANTIGENICITY; AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS; CYTOTOXICITY; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DRUG INDUCED DISEASE; DRUG MEGADOSE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC DIFFERENCE; GOITER; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOMODULATION; INCIDENCE; IODINE DEFICIENCY; LOW DRUG DOSE; LYMPHOCYTIC INFILTRATION; LYMPHOCYTIC THYROIDITIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SIDE EFFECT; THYROID DISEASE; THYROID FUNCTION; THYROID GLAND; THYROTOXICOSIS;

ANIMALS; GOITER; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; IODINE; PREVALENCE; THYROID GLAND; THYROIDITIS, AUTOIMMUNE;

EID: 36649025755     PISSN: 10507256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/thy.2006.0299     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Hays M 2001 Estimation of total body iodine content in normal young men. Thyroid 11:671-675.
2. Laurberg P, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Ovesen L, Andersen S 2001 Environmental iodine intake affects the type of nonmalignant thyroid disease. Thyroid 11:457-469.
3. WHO/UNICEF/ICCIDD 2001 Assessment of the iodine deficiency disorders and monitoring their elimination. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001 Publication WHO/NHD/01, 1:1-107.
4. Caldwell KL, Jones R, Hollowell JG 2005 Urinary iodine concentration: United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2002. Thyroid 15:692-699.
5. 4 and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87: 489-499.
6. de Benoist B, Andersson M, Takkouche B, Egli I 2003 Prevalence of iodine deficiency worldwide. Lancet 362:1859-1860.
7. Prentice LM, Phillips DI, Sarsero D, Beever K, McLachlan SM, Smith BR 1990 Geographical distribution of subclinical autoimmune thyroid disease in Britain: a study using highly sensitive direct assays for autoantibodies to thyroglobulin and thyroid peroxidase. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 123:493-498.
8. O'Leary PC, Feddema PH, Michelangeli VP, Leedman PJ, Chew GT, Knuiman M, Kaye J, Walsh JP 2006 Investigations of thyroid hormones and antibodies based on a community health survey: the Busselton thyroid study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 64:97-104.
9. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM, French JM, Appleton D, Bates D, Clark F, Grimley Evans J, Hasan DM, Rodgers H, Tunbridge F, Young ET 1995 The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham Survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:55-68.
10. Brix TH, Kyvik KO, Hegedus L 2000 A population-based study of chronic autoimmune hypothyroidism in Danish twins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:536-539.
11. Brix TH, Kyvik KO, Christensen K, Hegedus L 2001 Evidence for a major role of heredity in Graves' disease: a population-based study of two Danish twin cohorts. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:930-934.
12. Prummel MF, Strieder T, Wiersinga WM 2004 The environment and autoimmune thyroid diseases. Eur J Endocrinol 150:605-618.
13. Bagchi N, Brown TR, Urdanivia E, Sundick RS 1985 Induction of autoimmune thyroiditis in chickens by dietary iodine. Science 230:325-327.
14. Allen EM, Appel MC, Braverman LE 1986 The effect of iodide ingestion on the development of spontaneous lymphocytic thyroiditis in the diabetes-prone BB/W rat. Endocrinology 118:1977-1981.
15. Mooij P, de Wit HJ, Bloot AM, Wilders-Truschnig MM, Drexhage HA 1993 Iodine deficiency induces thyroid autoimmunity reactivity in Wistar rats. Endocrinology 133: 1197-1204.
16. Rasooly L, Burek CL, Rose NR 1996 Iodine induced autoimmune thyroiditis in NOD-H-2h4 mice. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 81:287-292.
17. McConahey WM, Keating FR, Beahrs OH, Woolner LB 1962 On the increasing occurrence of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:542-544.
18. Weaver DK, Nishiyama RH, Burton WD, Batsakis JG 1966 Surgical thyroid disease. A survey before and after iodine prophylaxis. Arch Surg 92:796-801.
19. Furszyfer J, Kurland LT, McConahey WM, Woolner LB, Elveback LR 1972 Epidemiologic aspects of Hashimoto thyroiditis and Graves' disease in Rochester, Minnesota (1935-1967), with special reference to temporal trends. Metabolism 21:197-204.
20. Harach HR, Williams ED 1995 Thyroid cancer and thyroiditis in the goitrous region of Salta, Argentina, before and after iodine prophylaxis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:701-706.
21. Inoue M, Taketani N, Sato T, Nakajima H 1975 High incidence of chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis in apparently healthy schoolchildren: epidemiological and clinical study. Endocrinol Jpn 22:483-488.
22. Konno N, Makita H, Yuri K, Lizuka N, Kawasaki K 1994 Association between dietary iodine intake and prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in the coastal regions of Japan. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:373-381.
23. Teng W, Shan Z, Teng X, Guan H, Li Y, Teng D, Jin Y, Yu X, Fan C, Chong W, Yang F, Dai H, Yu Y, Li J, Chen Y, Zhao D, Shi X, Hu F, Mao J, Gu X, Yang R, Tong Y, Wang W, Gao T, Li C 2006 Effect of iodine intake on thyroid disease in China. N Engl J Med 354:2783-2793.
24. Laurberg P, Pedersen KM, Vestergaard H, Sigurdsson G 1991 High incidence of multinodular toxic goiter in the elderly population in a low iodine intake area vs high incidence of Graves' disease in the young in a high iodine intake area: comparative surveys of thyrotoxicosis epidemiology in East-Jutland Denmark and Iceland. J Intern Med 229:415-420.
25. Lind P, Kumnig G, Heinisch M, Igerc I, Mikosch P, Gallowitsch HJ, Kresnik E, Gomez I, Unterweger O, Aigner H 2002 Iodine supplementation in Austria: methods and results. Thyroid 12:903-907.
26. Hadjidakis SG, Koutras DA, Daikos GK 1964 Endemic goitre in Greece: family studies. J Med Genet 1:82-87.
27. Malamos V, Koutras DA, Kostamis P, Kralios AC, Rigopoulos G, Zerefos N 1966 Endemic goiter in Greece: epidemiologic and genetic studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 26: 688-695.
28. Malamos V, Miras K, Koutras DA, Kostamis P, Binopoulos D, Mantzos J, Levis G, Rigopoulos G, Zerefos N, Tassopoulos CN 1966 Endemic goiter in Greece: metabolic studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 26:696-704.
29. Koutras DA, Katsouyanni EK, Livadas DP, Piperingos GD, Tzonou A, Trichopoulos D 1982 An epidemiologic survey of thyroid enlargement among schoolchildren in a non-endemic area. Endokrinologie 79:349-354.
30. Koutras DA, Piperingos G, Mantzos J, Boukis M, Karaiskos KS, Hadjiioannou S 1993 Iodine nutrition and iodine deficiency disorders in Greece: signs of improvement. In: Delange F, Dunn JT, Glinoer D (ed) Iodine Deficiency in Europe. A Continuing Concern. Plenum Press, New York, pp 421-426.
31. Doufas AG, Mastorakos G, Chatziioannou S, Tseleni-Balafouta S, Piperingos G, Boukis MA, Mantzos E, Caraiskos CS, Mantzos J, Alevizaki M, Koutras DA 1999 The predominant form of non-toxic goiter in Greece is now autoimmune thyroiditis. Eur J Endocrinol 140:505-511.
32. Zois C, Stavrou I, Kalogera C, Svarna E, Dimoliatis I, Seferiadis K, Tsatsoulis A 2003 High prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in schoolchildren after elimination of iodine deficiency in Northwestern Greece. Thyroid 13:485-489.
33. Tsatsoulis A, Johnson EO, Sacharis K, Soucacos PK, Soukakos PN 1996 An epidemiological survey on the prevalence of goitre among schoolchildren in Northwestern Greece. Eur J Intern Med 7:35-39.
34. Tsatsoulis A, Johnson EO, Andricula M, Kalogera C, Svarna E, Spyrou P, Seferiadis K, Tsolas O 1999 Thyroid autoimmunity is associated with higher urinary iodine concentrations in an iodine deficient area of Northwestern Greece. Thyroid 9:279-283.
35. Szabolcs I, Podoba J, Feldcamp J, Dohan O, Farkas I, Sajgo M, Takats KI, Goth M, Kovacs L, Kressinszky K, Hnilica P, Szilagyi G 1997 Comparative screening for thyroid disorders in old age in areas of iodine deficiency, long-term iodine prophylaxis and abundant iodine intake. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 47:87-92.
36. Laurberg P, Pedersen KM, Hreidarsson A, Sigfusson N, Iversen E, Knudsen PR 1998 Iodine intake and the pattern of thyroid disorders: a comparative epidemiological study of thyroid abnormalities in the elderly in Iceland and in Jutland, Denmark. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:765-769.
37. Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Jorgensen T, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Laurberg P 2003 Thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin autoantibodies in a large survey of populations with mild and moderate iodine deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 58: 36-42.
38. Kabelitz M, Liesenkotter KP, Stach B, Willgerodt H, Stablein W, Singendonk W, Jager-Roman E, Litzenborger H, Ehnert B, Gruters A 2003 The prevalence of anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies and autoimmune thyroiditis in children and adolescents in an iodine replete area. Eur J Endocrinol 148:301-307.
39. Loviselli A, Velluzzi F, Mossa P, Cambosu MA, Secci G, Atzeni F, Taberlet A, Balestrieri A, Martino E, Grasso L, Songini M, Bottazzo GF, Mariotti S; Sardinian Schoolchildren Study Group 2001 The Sardinian Autoimmunity Study: 3. Studies on circulating antithyroid antibodies in Sardinian schoolchildren: relationship to goiter prevalence and thyroid function. Thyroid 11:849-857.
40. Marwaha RK, Tandon N, Gupta N, Karak AK, Verma K, Kochupillai N 2003 Residual goitre in the postiodization phase: iodine status, thiocyanate exposure and autoimmunity. Clin Endocrinol 59:672-681.
41. Azizi F, Navai L, Fattahi F 2002 Goiter prevalence, urinary iodine excretion, thyroid function and anti-thyroid function and anti-thyroid antibodies after 12 years of salt iodization in Shahriar, Iran. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 72:291-295.
42. Okayasu I, Hatakeyama S, Tanaka Y, Sakurai T, Hoshi K, Lewis PD 1991 Is focal chronic autoimmune thyroiditis an age-related disease? Differences in incidence and severity between Japanese and British. J Pathol 163:257-264.
43. Okayasu I, Hara Y, Nakamura K, Rose NR 1994 Racial and age-related differences in incidence and severity of focal autoimmune thyroiditis. Am J Clin Pathol 101:698-702.
44. Zimmermann MB, Moretti D, Chaouki N, Torrresani T 2003 Introduction of iodine salt to severely iodine-deficient children does not provoke thyroid autoimmunity: a one-year prospective trial in Northern Morocco. Thyroid 13:199-203.
45. Premawardhana LDKE, Parkes AB, Smyth PPA, Wijeyaratne CN, Jayasinghe A, de Silva DGH, Lazarus JH 2000 Increased prevalence of thyroglobulin antibodies in Sri Lankan schoolgirls - is iodine the cause? Eur J Endocrinol 143:185-188.
46. Mazziotti G, Premawardhana LDKE, Parkes AB, Adams H, Smyth PPA, Smith DF, Kaluarachi WN, Wijeyaratne CN, Jayasinghe A, de Silva DGH, Lazarus JH 2003 Evolution of thyroid autoimmunity during iodine prophylaxis - the Sri Lankan experience. Eur J Endocrinol 149:103-110.
47. Zois C, Stavrou I, Svarna E, Seferiadis K, Tsatsoulis A 2006 Natural course of autoimmune thyroiditis after elimination of iodine deficiency in northwestern Greece. Thyroid 16: 289-293.
48. Coutinho A, Kazatchkine MD, Avrameas S 1995 Natural antibodies. Curr Opin Immunol 7:812-818.
49. Tomer Y 1997 Anti-thyroglobulin autoantibodies in autoimmune thyroid disease: cross-reactive or pathogenic? Clin Immunol Immunopathol 82:3-11.
50. Ruf J, Carayon P, Lissitzky S 1985 Various expressions of a unique anti-human thyroglobulin antibody repertoire in a normal state and autoimmune disease. Eur J Immunol 15: 268-272.
51. Caturegli P, Mariotti S, Kuppers C, Burek CL, Pinchera A, Rose NR 1994 Epitopes on thyroglobulin: a study of patients with thyroid disease. Autoimmunity 18:41-49.
52. Okosieme OE, Premawardhana LD, Jayasinghe A, de Silva DG, Smyth PP, Parkes AB, Lejeune PJ, Ruf J, Lazarus JH 2003 Thyroglobulin epitope recognition in a post iodine-supplemented Sri Lankan population. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 59:190-197.
53. Okosieme OE, Premawardhana LDKE, Jayasinghe A, Kaluarachi WN, Parkes AB, Smyth PPA, Lejeune PJ, Ruf J, Lazarus JH 2005 Thyroglobulin autoantibodies in iodized subjects: relationship between epitope specificities and longitudinal antibody activity. Thyroid 15:1067-1072.
54. Boukis MA, Koutras DA, Souvatzoglou A, Evangelopoulou A, Vrontakis M, Moulopoulos SD 1983 Thyroid hormones and immunological studies in endemic goitre. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 57:859-862.
55. 3 and KI. Thyroidology 2:81-88.
56. Papanastasiou L, Alevizaki M, Piperingos G, Mantzos E, Tseleni-Balafouta S, Koutras DA 2000 The effect of iodine administration on the development of thyroid autoimmunity in patients with nontoxic goiter. Thyroid 10:493-497.
57. Kahaly GJ, Dienes HP, Beyer J, Hommel G 1997 Randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial of low dose iodide in endemic goiter. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:4049-4053.
58. Kahaly GJ, Dienes HP, Beyer J, Hommel G 1998 Iodide induces thyroid autoimmunity in patients with endemic goitre: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Endocrinol 139:290-297.
59. Markou KB, Georgopoulos NA, Makri M, Vlasopoulou B, Anastasiou E, Vagenakis GA, Kouloubi K, Theodosopoulos N, Lazarou N, Veizis A, Sakellaropoulos G, Vagenakis AG 2003 Improvement of iodine deficiency after iodine supplementation in schoolchildren of Azerbaijan was accompanied by hypo and hyperthyrotropinemia and increased title of thyroid autoantibodies. J Endocrinol Invest 26 (2 Suppl):43-48.
60. Hall R, Turner-Warwick M, Doniach D 1966 Autoantibodies in iodide goitre and asthma. Clin Exp Immunol 1:285-296.
61. Ishizuki Y, Hirooka Y, Tanigawa S, Sawai Y 1994 The prevalence of antithyroid antibodies and long term follow-up in patients with lipiodol iodine-induced goiter. Nippon Naibunpi Gakkai Zasshi 70:957-966.
62. Pearce EN, Russell Gerber A, Gootnick DB, Kettel Khan L, Li R, Pino S, Braverman LE 2002 Effects of chronic iodine excess in a cohort of long-term American workers in West Africa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:5499-5502.
63. Knobel M, Medeiros-Neto G 1986 Iodized oil treatment for endemic goiter does not induce the surge of positive serum concentrations of anti-thyroglobulin or anti-microsomal autoantibodies. J Endocrinol Invest 9:321-324.
64. Eltom M, Karlsson FA, Kamal AM, Bostrom H, Dahlberg PA 1985 The effectiveness of oral iodized oil in the treatment and prophylaxis of endemic goiter. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 61:1112-1117.
65. Tonglet R, Bourdoux P, Tshilembi M, Ermans AM 1992 Effect of low oral doses of iodized oil in the control of iodine deficiency in Zaire. N Engl J Med 326:236-241.
66. Lazarus JH, Parkes AB, John R, N'Diaye M, Prysor-Iones SG 1992 Endemic goitre in Senegal - thyroid function, etiological factors and treatment with oral iodized oil. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 126:149-154.
67. Benmiloud M, Chauki ML, Gutekunst R, Teichert HM, Graham W, Dunn JT 1994 Oral iodized oil for correcting iodine deficiency: optimal dosing and outcome indicator selection. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:20-24.
68. Simescu M, Varciu M, Nicolaescu E, Gnat D, Podoba J, Mihaescu M, Delange F 2002 Iodized oil as a complement to iodized salt in schoolchildren in endemic goiter in Romania. Horm Res 58:78-82.
69. Martino E, Safran M, Aghini-Lombardi F, Rajatanavin R, Lenziardi M, Fay M, Pacchiarotti A, Aronin N, Macchia E, Haffajee C 1984 Environmental iodine intake and thyroid dysfunction during chronic amiodarone therapy. Ann Intern Med 101:28-34.
70. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Mariotti S, Bartalena L, Lenziardi M, Ceccarelli C, Bambini G, Safran M, Braverman LE, Pinchera A 1987 Amiodarone iodine-induced hypothyroidism risk factors and follow up in 28 cases. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 26:227-237.
71. Monteiro E, Galvao-Teles A, Santos ML, Mourao L, Correia MJ, Lopa Tuna J 1986 Antithyroid antibodies as an early marker for thyroid disease induced by amiodarone. Br Med J 292:227-228.
72. Martino E, Macchia E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Antonelli A, Lenziardi M, Concetti R, Fenzi GF, Bascheri L, Pinchera A 1986 Is humoral thyroid autoimmunity relevant in amiodarone iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis (AITT)? Clin Endocrinol 24:627-633.
73. Safran M, Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Bartalena L, Balzano S, Pinchera A, Braverman LE 1988 Effect of amiodarone on circulating antithyroid antibodies. Br Med J 297:456-457.
74. Weetman AP, Bhandal SK, Burrin JM, Robinson K, McKenna W 1988 Amiodarone and thyroid autoimmunity in the United Kingdom. Br Med J 297:33.
75. Foresti V, Pepe R, Parisio E, Scolari N, Zubani R, Bianco M 1989 Antithyroid antibodies during amiodarone treatment. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 121:203-206.
76. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Bartalena L, Grasso L, Loviselli A, Velluzzi F, Pinchera A, Braverman LE 1994 Enhanced susceptibility to amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism in patients with thyroid autoimmune disease. Arch Intern Med 154:2722-2726.
77. Schaan DB, Cunha CP, Francisconi A, Zottis B, Brum G, Bruch RS, Gus M 2005 Amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction in a tertiary center in south Brazil. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 49:916-922.
78. Rabinowe SL, Larsen PR, Antman EM, George KL, Friedman PL, Jackson RA, Eisenbarth GS 1986 Amiodarone therapy and autoimmune thyroid disease. Increase in a new monoclonal antibody-defined T cell subset. Am J Med 81:53-57.
79. Van de Graaf SA, Ris-Stalpers C, Pauws E, Mendive FM, Targovnik HM, Vijlder JJ 2001 Up to date with human thyroglobulin. J Endocrinol 170:307-321.
80. Ruwhof C, Drexhage HA 2001 Iodine and thyroid autoimmune disease in animal models. Thyroid 11:427-436.
81. Sundick RS, Herdegen DM, Brown TR, Bagchi N 1987 The incorporation of dietary iodine into thyroglobulin increases its immunogenicity. Endocrinology 120:2078-2084.
82. Champion B, Rayner DC, Byfield PGH, Page KR, Chan CTJ, Roitt IM 1987 Critical role of iodination for T cell recognition of thyroglobulin in experimental murine thyroid autoimmunity. J Immunol 139:3665-3670.
83. Ebner SA, Lueprasitsakul W, Alex S, Fang SL, Appel MC, Braverman LE 1992 Iodine content of rat thyroglobulin affects its antigenicity in inducing lymphocytic thyroiditis in the BB/Wor rat. Autoimmunity 13:209-214.
84. Champion B, Page KR, Parish N, Rayner DC, Dawe K, Biswas-Hughes G, Cooke A, Geysen M, Roitt IM 1991 Identification of a thyroxine-containing self-epitope of thyroglobulin which triggers thyroid autoreactive T cells. J Exp Med 174:363-370.
85. Kong YC, McCormick DJ, Wan Q, Motte RW, Fuller BE, Giraldo AA, David CS 1995 Primary hormonogenic sites as conserved autoepitopes on thyroglobulin in murine autoimmune thyroiditis: secondary role of iodination. J Immunol 155:5847-5854.
86. Dai YD, Rao VP, Carayanniotis G 2002 Enhanced iodination of thyroglobulin facilitates processing and presentation of a cryptic pathogenic peptide. J Immunol 168: 5907-5911.
87. Li HS, Carayanniotis G 2006 Iodination of tyrosyls in thyroglobulin generates neoantigenic determinants that cause thyroiditis. J Immunol 176:4479-4483.
88. Carayanniotis G 2003 The cryptic self in thyroid autoimmunity: the paradigm of thyroglobulin. Autoimmunity 36:423-428.
89. Rasooly L, Rose NR, Saboori AM, Ladenson P, Burek CL 1998 Iodine is essential for human T cell recognition of human thyroglobulin. Autoimmunity 27:213-219.
90. Saboori AM, Rose NR, Bresler HS, Vladut-Talor M, Burek CL 1998 Iodination of human thyroglobulin (Tg) alters its immunoreactivity. I: Iodination alters multiple epitopes of human Tg. Clin Exp Immunol 113:297-302.
91. Mahmoud I, Colin I, Many MC, Denef JF 1986 Direct toxic effect of iodide in excess on iodine-deficient thyroid glands: epithelial necrosis and inflammation associated with lipofuscin accumulation. Exp Mol Pathol 44:259-271.
92. Many MC, Maniratunga S, Varis I, Dardenne M, Drexhage HA, Denef JF 1995 Two step development of Hashimoto-like thyroiditis in genetically autoimmune prone non-obese diabetic mice: effects of iodine induced cell necrosis. J Endocrinol 147:311-320.
93. Bagchi N, Brown TR, Sundick RS 1995 Thyroid cell injury is an initial event in the induction of autoimmune thyroiditis by iodine in obese strain chickens. Endocrinology 136:5054-5060.
94. Many MC, Mestdagh C, van den Hove MF, Denef JF 1992 In vitro study of acute toxic effects of high iodide doses in human thyroid follicles. Endocrinology 131:621-630.
95. Vitale M, Di Matola T, D'Ascoli F, Salzano S, Bogazzi F, Fenzi G, Martino E, Rossi G 2000 Iodide excess induces apoptosis in thyroid cells through a p53-independent mechanism involving oxidative stress. Endocrinology 141:598-605.
96. Mooij P, Simons PJ, de Haan-Meulman M, de Wit HJ, Drexhage HA 1994 Effect of thyroid hormones and other iodinated compounds on the transition of monocytes into veiled/dendritic cells: role of GM-CSF, TNF-α and IL-6. J Endocrinol 140:503-512.
97. Sharma RB, Alegria JD, Talor MV, Rose NR, Caturegli P, Burek CL 2005 Iodine and IFN-gamma synergistically enhance intercellular adhesion molecule 1 expression on NOD.H2h4 mouse thyrocytes. J Immunol 174:7740-7745.
98. Weetman AP, McGregor AM, Campbell H, Lazarus TH, Ibbertson HK, Hall R 1983 Iodide enhances IgG synthesis by human peripheral blood lymphocytes in vitro. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 103:210-215.
99. Davies TF, Yang C, Platzer M 1989 The influence of antithyroid drugs and iodide on thyroid cell MHC class II antigen expression. Clin Endocrinol 31:125-131.
100. Sztankay A, Trieb K, Lucciarini P, Steiner E, Grubeck-Loebenstein B 1994 Interferon gamma and iodide increase the inducibility of the 72kD heat shock protein in cultured human thyroid epithelial cells. J Autoimmun 7:219-230.