Review of urban stormwater quality models: Deterministic, stochastic, and hybrid approaches

Journal of the American Water Resources Association

Volumn 43, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 1508-1523

  Obropta, Christopher C ^a   Kardos, Josef S ^a  

^a Rutgers University   (United States)

Author keywords

Nonpoint source pollution; Runoff; Stochastic models; Stormwater modeling; Water quality

Indexed keywords

LAND USE; RUNOFF; SEWERS; STOCHASTIC MODELS; WATER MANAGEMENT;

NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION; STORMWATER MODELING;

WATER QUALITY;

LAND USE; RUNOFF; SEWERS; STOCHASTIC MODELS; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY;

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; FLOW MODELING; HYDROLOGICAL MODELING; INTEGRATED APPROACH; NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION; RUNOFF; STOCHASTICITY; STORMWATER; SURFACE WATER; URBANIZATION; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY;

EID: 36649020916     PISSN: 1093474X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00124.x     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Ahyerre, M., F.O. Henry, F. Gogien, M. Chabanel, M. Zug D. Renaudet, 2005. Test of the Efficiency of Three Storm Water Quality Models With a Rich Set of Data. Water Science and Technology 51 (2 171 177.
2. Al-Abed, N.A. H.R. Whiteley, 2002. Calibration of the Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran (HSPF) Model Using Automatic Calibration and Geographical Information Systems. Hydrological Processes 16 : 3169 3188.
3. Alley, W.M. P.E. Smith, 1982a. Distributed Routing Rainfall-Runoff Model: Version II. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 82-344, Denver, Colorado, 201 pp.
4. Alley, W.M. P.E. Smith, 1982b. Multi-Event Urban Runoff Quality Model. U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 82-764, 169 pp.
5. Ashley, R., B. Crabtree, A. Fraser T. Hvitved-Jacobsen, 2003. European Research Into Sewer Sediments and Associated Pollutants and Processes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (4 267 275.
6. Barbe, D.E., J.F. Cruise X. Mo, 1996. Modeling the Buildup and Washoff of Pollutants on Urban Watersheds. Water Resources Bulletin 32 (3 511 519.
7. Beck, M.B., 2005. Vulnerability of Water Quality in Intensively Developing Urban Watersheds. Environmental Modelling and Software 20 (11 381 400.
8. Behera, P.K., B.J. Adams J.Y. Liu, 2006. Runoff Quality Analysis of Urban Catchments With Analytical Probabilistic Models. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 132 (1 4 14.
9. Bergman, M.J., W. Green L.J. Donnangelo, 2002. Calibration of Storm Loads in the South Prong Watershed, Florida, Using BASINS/HSPF. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 38 (5 1423 1436.
10. Beven, K.J. J. Freer, 2001. Equifinality, Data Assimilation, and Uncertainty Estimation in Mechanistic Modeling of Complex Environmental Systems Using the GLUE Methodology. Journal of Hydrology 249 : 11 29.
11. Bicknell, B.R., J.C. Imhoff, J.L. Kittle, Jr., A.S. Donigian, Jr. R.C. Johanson, 1997. Hydrological Simulation Program-FORTRAN, User Manual for Version 11. EPA-600-R-97-080, National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, 755 pp.
12. Borah, D.K. M. Bera, 2003. Watershed-Scale Hydrologic and Nonpoint-Source Pollution Models: Review of Mathematical Bases. Transactions of the ASAE 46 (6 1553 1566.
13. Brabets, T.P., 1987. Quantity and Quality of Urban Runoff From the Chester Creek Basin, Anchorage, Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 86-4312, Denver, Colorado, 58 pp.
14. Buffleben, M.S., K. Zayeed, D. Kimbrough, M.K. Stenstrom I.K. Suffet, 2002. Evaluation of Urban Non-Point Source Runoff of Hazardous Metals Entering Santa Monica Bay, California. Water Science and Technology 45 (9 263 268.
15. Burian, S.J., G.E. Streit, T.N. McPherson, M.J. Brown H.J. Turin, 2001. Modeling the Atmospheric Deposition and Stormwater Washoff of Nitrogen Compounds. Environmental Modelling and Software 16 : 467 479.
16. Campisano, A., E. Creaco C. Modica, 2004. Experimental and Numerical Analysis of the Scouring Effects of Flushing Waves on Sediment Deposits. Journal of Hydrology 299 : 324 334.
17. Chebbo, G. M.C. Gromaire, 2004. The Experimental Urban Catchment 'Le Marais' in Paris: What Lessons Can Be Learned From It? Journal of Hydrology 299 : 312 323.
18. Chen, J. B.J. Adams, 2006. A Framework for Urban Storm Water Modeling and Control Analysis With Analytical Models. Water Resources Research 42, W06419, doi:.
19. Clark, S., R. Pitt, S. Burian, R. Field, E. Fan, J. Heaney L. Wright, 2007. Annotated Bibliography of Urban Wet Weather Flow Literature From 1996 Through 2006. http://rpitt.eng.ua.edu/Publications/Wetweatherlit/ 1996%20to%202006%20WEF%20lit%20reviews.pdf, accessed March 2006.
20. Council of the European Communities, 2000. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy. Official Journal L327, 1.
21. Crabtree, R.W., R. Ashley R. Gent, 1995. MOUSETRAP: Modelling of Real Sewer Sediment Characteristics and Attached Pollutants. Water Science and Technology 31 (7 43 50.
22. Crabtree, R., H. Garsdal, R. Gent, O. Mark J. Dorge, 1994. MOUSETRAP - A Deterministic Sewer Flow Quality Model. Water Science and Technology 30 (1 107 115.
23. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004a. MOUSE Pipe Flow, Reference Manual. DHI Software, Denmark.
24. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004b. MOUSE RDII Reference Manual. DHI Software, Denmark.
25. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004c. MOUSE Surface Runoff Models, Reference Manual. DHI Software, Denmark.
26. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004d. MOUSETRAP, Version 2004, Technical Reference, Advection-Dispersion Module. DHI Software, Denmark.
27. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004e. MOUSETRAP, Version 2004, Technical Reference, Sediment Transport Module. DHI Software, Denmark.
28. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004f. MOUSETRAP, Version 2004, Technical Reference, Surface Runoff Quality Module. DHI Software, Denmark.
29. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute), 2004g. MOUSETRAP, Version 2004, Technical Reference, Water Quality Module. DHI Software, Denmark.
30. David, L.M. R.S. Matos, 2002. Wet Weather Water Quality Modelling of a Portuguese Urban Catchment: Difficulties and Benefits. Water Science and Technology 45 (3 131 140.
31. De Sutter, R., P. Rushforth, S. Tait, M. Huygens, R. Verhoeven A. Saul, 2003. Validation of Existing Bed Load Transport Formulas Using In-Sewer Sediment. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (4 325 333.
32. Delleur, J.W., 2001. New Results and Research Needs on Sediment Movement in Urban Drainage. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 127 (3 186 193.
33. Doherty, J. J.M. Johnston, 2003. Methodologies for Calibration and Predictive Analysis of a Watershed Model. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39 (2 251 265.
34. Donigian, Jr., A.S., B.R. Bicknell J.C. Imhoff, 1995. Hydrological Simulation Program - FORTRAN (HSPF), Chapter 12. In Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, V.P. Singh (Editor). Water Resources Publications, Colorado, pp. 395 442.
35. Driver, N.E. B.M. Troutman, 1989. Regression Models for Estimating Urban Storm-Runoff Quality and Quantity in the United States. Journal of Hydrology 109 : 221 236.
36. Eckhardt, K. J.G. Arnold, 2001. Automatic Calibration of a Distributed Catchment Model. Journal of Hydrology 251 : 103 109.
37. El-Kaddah, D.N. A.E. Carey, 2004. Water Quality Modeling of the Cahaba River, Alabama. Environmental Geology 45 : 323 338.
38. Fan, C.Y., R. Field F.H. Lai, 2003. Sewer-Sediment Control: Overview of an Environmental Protection Agency Wet-Weather Flow Research Program. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (4 253 259.
39. Furumai, H., H. Balmer M. Boller, 2002. Dynamic Behavior of Suspended Pollutants and Particle Size Distribution in Highway Runoff. Water Science and Technology 46 (11-12 413 418.
40. Gaffield, S.J., R.L. Goo, L.A. Richards R.J. Jackson, 2003. Public Health Effects of Inadequately Managed Stormwater Runoff. American Journal of Public Health 93 (9 1527 1533.
41. Gallagher, M. J. Doherty, 2007. Parameter Estimation and Uncertainty Analysis for a Watershed Model. Environmental Modelling & Software, 22 (7 1000 1020.
42. Garsdal, H., O. Mark, J. Dorge S.E. Jepsen, 1995. MOUSETRAP: Modelling of Water Quality Processes and the Interaction of Sediments and Pollutants in Sewers. Water Science and Technology 31 (7 33 41.
43. Gent, R., B. Crabtree R. Ashley, 1996. A Review of Model Development Based on Sewer Sediments Research in the UK. Water Science and Technology 33 (9 1 7.
44. Glenn, D.W. J.J. Sansalone, 2002. Accretion and Partitioning of Heavy Metals Associated With Snow Exposed to Urban Traffic and Winter Storm Maintenance Activities. II. Journal of Environmental Engineering 128 (2 167 185.
45. Gong, N., T. Denoeux J.-L. Bertrand-Krajewski, 1996. Neural Networks for Solid Transport Modelling in Sewer Systems During Storm Events. Water Science and Technology 33 (9 85 92.
46. Goonetillike, A., E. Thomas, S. Ginn D. Gilbert, 2005. Understanding the Role of Land Use in Urban Stormwater Quality Management. Journal of Environmental Management 74 : 31 42.
47. Guay, J.R. P.E. Smith, 1988. Simulation of Quantity and Quality of Storm Runoff for Urban Catchments in Fresno, California. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4125, Denver, Colorado, 76 pp.
48. Häck, M. U. Lorenz, 2002. Online Load Measurement in Combined Sewer Systems - Possibilities of an Integrated Management of Wastewater Transportation and Treatment. Water Science and Technology 45 (4-5 421 428.
49. Hoos, A.B., 1996. Improving Regional-Model Estimates of Urban-Runoff Quality Using Local Data. Water Resources Bulletin 32 (4 855 863.
50. House, M.A., J.B. Ellis, E.E. Herricks, T. Hvitved-Jacobsen, J. Seager, L. Lijklema, H. Aalderink I.T. Clifforde, 1993. Urban Drainage-Impacts on Receiving Water Quality. Water Science and Technology 27 : 117 158.
51. Huber, W.C., 1985. Deterministic Modeling of Urban Runoff Quality, Chapter III. In Urban Runoff Pollution, H.C. Torno, J. Marsalek M. Desbordes (Editors). Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, pp. 167 242.
52. Huber, W.C. R.E. Dickinson, 1988. Storm Water Management Model User's Manual, Version 4. EPA-600-3-88-001a, National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, 595 pp.
53. HEC (Hydrologic Engineering Center), 1977. Storage, Treatment, Overflow, Runoff Model, STORM, Generalized Computer Program 723-58-L7520. Hydrologic Engineering Center, U.S. Corps of Engineers, Davis, California.
54. Im, S., K.M. Brannan S. Mostaghimi, 2003. Simulating Hydrologic and Water Quality Impacts in an Urbanizing Watershed. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39 (6 1465 1479.
55. Kanso, A., G. Chebbo B. Tassin, 2006. Application of MCMC-GSA Model Calibration Method to Urban Runoff Quality Modeling. Reliability Engineering and System Safety 91 (10-11 1398 1405.
56. Kanso, A., M.C. Gromaire, E. Gaume, B. Tassin G. Chebbo, 2003. Bayesian Approach for the Calibration of Models: Application to an Urban Stormwater Pollution Model. Water Science and Technology 47 (4 77 84.
57. Kopecny, E., S. Entem, A. Lahoud, A. Moeller, L. Yde M. Soulier, 1999. Real Time Control of the Sewer System of Boulogne Billancourt, a Contribution to Improving the Water Quality of the Seine. Third DHI Software Conference, Helsingor, Denmark, June 7-11 1999.
58. Leecaster, M.K., K. Schiff L.L. Tiefenthaler, 2002. Assessment of Efficient Sampling Designs for Urban Stormwater Monitoring. Water Research 36 : 1556 1564.
59. Lin, Z. D.E. Radcliffe, 2006. Automatic Calibration and Predictive Uncertainty Analysis of a Semidistributed Watershed Model. Vadose Zone Journal 5 (1 248 260.
60. Linder-Lundsford, J.B. S.R. Ellis, 1987. Comparison of Conceptually Based and Regression Rainfall-Runoff Models, Denver Metropolitan Area, Colorado, and Potential Applications in Urban Areas. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigation Report 87-4104, Denver, Colorado, 39 pp.
61. Maestre, A., R. Pitt D. Williamson, 2004. Nonparametric Statistical Test Comparing First Flush and Composite Samples From the National Stormwater Quality Database. In Innovative Modeling of Urban Water Systems, W. James (Editors). Monograph 12. Computational Hydraulics International: CHI, Guelph, Ontario.
62. Masse, B., M. Zug, J.P. Tabuchi B. Tisserand, 2001. Long Term Pollution Simulation in Combined Sewer Networks. Water Science and Technology 43 (7 83 89.
63. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., University of Florida, and Water Resources Engineers, Inc., 1971. Storm Water Management Models, Vols. I, II, III, and IV, EPA Reports 11024 DOC 07/71, 08/71, 09/71, 10/71, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
64. Mishra, S.K., J.J. Sansalone V.P. Singh, 2004. Partitioning Analog for Metal Elements in Urban Rainfall-Runoff Overland Flow Using the Soil Conservation Service Curve Number Concept. Journal of Environmental Engineering 130 (2 145 154.
65. Mosley, L.M. B.M. Peake, 2001. Partitioning of Metals (Fe, Pb, Cu, Zn) in Urban Runoff From the Kaikorai Valley, Dunedin, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine Freshwater Resources 35 : 615 624.
66. Najjar, K.F., S.S. Park C.G. Uchrin, 1995. A Water Quality Management Model for the Lakes Bay Estuarine Embayment 1: Receiving Water Quality Model. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A - Environmental Science and Engineering 30 (5 1001 1023.
67. Nix, S.J., 1994. Urban Stormwater Modeling and Simulation. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.
68. Novotny, V. G. Chesters, 1981. Handbook of Nonpoint Pollution Sources and Management. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, New York.
69. Olsson, G., 2006. Instrumentation, Control and Automation in the Water Industry - State-of-the-Art and New Challenges. Water Science and Technology 53 (4-5 1 16.
70. Pisano, W.C., J. Barsanti, J. Joyce H. Sorensen 1998. Sewer and Tank Sediment Flushing: Case Studies. EPA-600-R-98-157, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
71. Pitt, R., A. Maestre R. Morquecho, 2004. The National Stormwater Quality Database (NSQD, Version 1.1). http://unix.eng.ua.edu/∼rpitt/Research/ms4/ Paper/Mainms4paper.html, accessed February 2006.
72. Rauch, W., J.L. Bertrand-Krajewski, P. Krebs, O. Mark, W. Schilling, M. Schütze P.A. Vanrolleghem, 2002. Deterministic Modelling of Integrated Urban Drainage Systems. Water Science and Technology 45 (3 81 94.
73. Robien, A., T. Striebel R. Herrmann, 1997. Modeling of Dissolved and Particle-Bound Pollutants in Urban Street Runoff. Water Science and Technology 36 (8-9 77 82.
74. Rodriguez, F., H. Andrieu Y. Zech, 2000. Evaluation of a Distributed Model for Urban Catchments Using a 7-Year Continuous Data Series. Hydrological Processes 14 : 899 914.
75. Rossi, L., R. Slowinski R. Susmaga, 1999. Rough Set Approach to the Evaluation of Stormwater Pollution. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 12 (2-3 232 250.
76. Rossman, L.A., 2005. Storm Water Management Model User's Manual, Version 5.0. EPA-600-R-05-040, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 247 pp.
77. Rousseau, A.N., A. Mailhot, R. Quilbé J.-P. Villeneuve, 2005. Information Technologies in a Wider Perspective: Integrating Management Functions Across the Urban-Rural Interface. Environmental Modelling & Software 20 (4 443 455.
78. Rushforth, P.J., S.J. Tait A.J. Saul, 2003. Modeling the Erosion of Mixtures of Organic and Granular In-Sewer Sediments. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (4 308 315.
79. Sansalone, J.J. C.M. Cristina, 2004. Prediction of Gradation-Based Heavy Metal Mass Using Granulometric Indices of Snowmelt Particles. Journal of Environmental Engineering 130 (12 1488 1497.
80. Sartor, J.D. G.B. Boyd, 1972. Water Pollution Aspects of Street Surface Contaminants. EPA-R2-72-081, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
81. Saul, A.J., P.J. Skipworth, S.J. Tait P.J. Rushforth, 2003. Movement of Total Suspended Solids in Combined Sewers. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (4 298 307.
82. Schlutter, F. O. Mark, 2003. Dynamic Modelling of Pollutants From CSOs. Water Science and Technology 47 (4 149 156.
83. Scholz, K., 1997. Stochastic Simulation of Urban Hydrological Processes. Water Science and Technology 36 (8-9 25 31.
84. Shaw, E.M., 1994. Hydrology in Practice (Third Edition). Chapman & Hall, London, United Kingdom.
85. Skahill, B.E. J. Doherty, 2006. Efficient Accomodation of Local Minima in Watershed Model Calibration. Journal of Hydrology 329 : 122 139.
86. Stacey, P.E., 2006. Implementing Nitrogen Management in the Long Island Sound Watershed. Presented at 2nd National Water Quality Trading Conference, May 23-25, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. http://www.envtn.org/WQT_EPA/ Microsoft%20PowerPoint%20-%20Paul%20Stacey%20- %20Implementing%20Nitrogen%20Management%20in%20the%20Long%20I.pdf, accessed December 2006.
87. Tait, S.J., G. Chebbo, P.J. Skipworth, M. Ahyerre A.J. Saul, 2003. Modeling In-Sewer Deposit Erosion to Predict Sewer Flow Quality. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (4 316 324.
88. Temprano, J., O. Arango, J. Cagiao, J. Suárez I. Tejero, 2006. Stormwater Quality Calibration by SWMM: A Case Study in Northern Spain. Water SA 32 (1 55 63.
89. Thomas, O. D. Constant, 2004. Trends in Optical Monitoring. Water Science and Technology 49 (1 1 8.
90. Tsihrintzis, V.A. R. Hamid, 1997. Modeling and Management of Urban Stormwater Runoff Quality: A Review. Water Resources Management 11 : 137 164.
91. Tsihrintzis, V.A. R. Hamid, 1998. Runoff Quality Prediction From Small Urban Catchments Using SWMM. Hydrological Processes 12 : 311 329.
92. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 1983. Results of the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program - Volumes I, II, III, IV, Water Planning Division. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
93. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 1990. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Application Requirements for Storm Water Discharges: Final Rule. 55 Federal Register 47990, November 16, 1990, Washington, D.C.
94. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 1991. Modeling of Nonpoint Source Water Quality in Urban and Non-Urban Areas. EPA-600-3-91-039, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.
95. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 1994. Storm Water Management Model, Version 4.30. Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia.
96. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 1997. Compendium of Tools for Watershed Assessment and TMDL Development. EPA-841-B-97-006, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.
97. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 1999. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System - Regulations for Revision of the Water Pollution Control Program Addressing Storm Water Discharges: Final Rule. 64 Federal Register 68722, December 8, 1999, Washington, D.C.
98. USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), 2001. Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources: BASINS Version 3.0 User's Manual. EPA-823-B-01-001, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/basins/b3webdwn.htm, accessed January 2006.
99. Vanrolleghem, P.A. D.S. Lee, 2003. On-Line Monitoring Equipment for Wastewater Treatment Processes: State of the Art. Water Science and Technology 47 (2 1 34.
100. Vaze, J. F.H.S. Chiew, 2003. Comparative Evaluation of Urban Storm Water Quality Models. Water Resources Research 39 (10 1280 1289.
101. Vojinovic, Z., V. Kecman V. Babovic, 2003. Hybrid Approach for Modeling Wet Weather Response in Wastewater Systems. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 129 (6 511 521.
102. Wallingford Software, 1997. Using Hydroworks, Wallingford Software, United Kingdom.
103. Wallingford Software, 2004. Infoworks CS v6.0 Help, Wallingford Software, United Kingdom.
104. Warwick, J.J. P. Tadepalli, 1991. Efficacy of SWMM Application. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 117 (3 352 366.
105. Warwick, J.J. J.S. Wilson, 1990. Estimating Uncertainty of Stormwater Runoff Computations. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 116 (2 187 203.
106. WERF (Water Environment Research Foundation), 2001. Water Quality Models: A Survey and Assessment. Project 99-WSM-5. Water Environment Research Foundation, Alexandria, Virgina.
107. Wischmeier, W.H. D.D. Smith, 1978. Predicting Rainfall-Erosion Losses: A Guide to Conservation Planning. Agriculture Handbook No. 537, U.S. Department of Agriculture - Agriculture Research Service, Washington, D.C.
108. Zoppou, C., 2001. Review of Urban Stormwater Models. Environmental Modelling and Software 16 : 195 231.
109. Zug, M., D. Faure, B. DeBelly L. Phan, 2001. Use of Real Time Control Modeling on the Urban Sewage System of Nancy. Water Science and Technology 44 (2-3 261 268.
110. Zug, M., R. Girard, L. Phan D. Bellefleur, 1998. COD Modelling in Sewer Networks. Water Science and Technology 38 (10 49 56.
111. Zug, M., L. Phan, D. Bellefleur O. Scrivener, 1999. Pollution Wash-off Modelling on Impervious Surfaces: Calibration, Validation, Transposition. Water Science and Technology 39 (2 17 24.