Race and the psychological health of African Americans

Group Processes and Intergroup Relations

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 471-491

  Ashburn Nardo, Leslie ^a   Monteith, Margo J ^b   Arthur, Steven A ^b   Bain, Amber ^c  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Implicit racial attitudes; Ingroup identity; Perceived prejudice; Psychological distress; Psychological well being

Indexed keywords

EID: 36348984401     PISSN: 13684302     EISSN: 14617188     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1368430207081536     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. Aberson, C.L., Shoemaker, C., & Tomolillo, C. (2004). Implicit bias and contact: The role of interethnic friendships. Journal of Social Psychology, 144, 335-347.
2. Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52, 317-332.
3. Allport, G.W. (1954/1979). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
4. Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2004). (Unraveling) the ties that bind: The impact of stigma on the implicit self-concept. Unpublished manuscript, Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis.
5. Ashburn-Nardo, L., Knowles, M.L., & Monteith, M.J. (2003). Black Americans' implicit racial associations and their implications for intergroup judgment. Social Cognition, 21, 61-87.
6. Ashburn-Nardo, L., Voils, C.I., & Monteith, M.J. (2001). Implicit associations as the seeds of intergroup bias: How easily do they take root? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 789-799.
7. Beck, A.T., Ward, C.H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
8. Bentler, P.M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238-246.
9. Blair, I.V. (2001). Implicit stereotypes and prejudice. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition (pp. 359-374). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
10. Branscombe, N.R., Schmitt, M.T., & Harvey, R.D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 135-149.
11. Brauer, M., Wasel, W., & Niedenthal, P. (2000). Implicit and explicit components of prejudice. Review of General Psychology, 4, 79-101.
12. Browne, M.W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136-162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
13. Campbell, A., Converse, P.E., & Rodgers, W.L. (1976). The quality of American life. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
14. Clark, R., Anderson, N.B., Clark, V.R., & Williams, D.R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816.
15. Crosby, F., Bromley, S., & Saxe, L. (1980). Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 546-563.
16. Cross, W. (1978). The Thomas and Cross models of psychological nigrescence: A literature review. Journal of Black Psychology, 4, 13-31.
17. Cunningham, W.A., Nezlek, J.B., & Banaji, M.R. (2004). Implicit and explicit ethnocentrism: Revisiting the ideologies of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1332-1346.
18. Curran, P.J., West, S.G., & Finch, J.F. (1997). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16- 29.
19. Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A.G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800-814.
20. Dempster, A.P., Laird, N.M., & Rubin, D.B. (1977). Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 39, 1-38.
21. Devine, P.G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
22. Diener, E., Emmons, R.A., Larsen, R.J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
23. Dovidio, J.F., Kawakami, K., & Beach, K.R. (2001). Implicit and explicit attitudes: Examination of the relationship between measures of intergroup bias. In R. Brown & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 175-197). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
24. Eccleston, C.P., & Major, B.N. (2006). Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: The role of group identification and appraisals. Group Processes Intergroup Relations, 9, 147-162.
25. Fazio, R.H., & Olson, M.A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
26. Graham, S. (1992). 'Most of the subjects were White and middle class': Trends in published research on African Americans in selected APA journals, 1970-1989. American Psychologist, 47, 629-639.
27. Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.L.K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
28. Greenwald, A.G., Nosek, B.A., & Banaji, M.R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216.
29. Hu, L.-T., Bentler, P.M., & Kano, Y. (1992). Can test statistics in covariance structure analysis be trusted? Psychological Bulletin, 112, 351-362.
30. Johnson, J.D., & Lecci, L. (2003). Assessing anti-White attitudes and predicting perceived racism: The Johnson-Lecci Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 299-312.
31. Jost, J.T., Pelham, B., Carvallo, M. (2002). Non-conscious forms of system justification: Cognitive, affective, and behavioral preferences for higher status groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 586-602.
32. Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J.L. (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774-788.
33. Livingston, R.W. (2002). The role of perceived negativity in the moderation of African Americans' implicit and explicit racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 405-413.
34. Major, B., & O'Brien, L.T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393-421.
35. Major, B., &Vick, S.B. (2005). The psychological impact of prejudice. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. A. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (pp. 139-154). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
36. Mardia, K.V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 28, 205-214.
37. Marsh, H.W., Hau, K.-T., Balla, J.R., & Grayson, D. (1998). Is more ever too much? The number of indicators per factor in confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 33, 181-220.
38. McConnell, A.R., & Liebold, J.M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435-442.
39. McCoy, S.K., & Major, B. (2003). Group identification moderates emotional responses to perceived prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1005-1017.
40. Mendoza-Denton, R., Downey, G., Purdie, V.J., Davis, A., & Pietrzak, J. (2002). Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students' college experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 896-918.
41. Nosek, B.A., Banaji, M.R., & Greenwald, A.G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration website. Group Dynamics, 6, 101-115.
42. Nosek, B.A., & Hansen, J.J. (2004). The associations in our heads belong to us: Searching for attitudes and knowledge in implicit evaluation. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia.
43. Olson, M.A., & Fazio, R.H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653-667.
44. Olsson, A., Ebert, J.P., Banaji, M.R., & Phelps, E.A. (2005). The role of social groups in the persistence of learned fear. Science, 309, 785-787.
45. Operario, D., & Fiske, S.T. (2001). Ethnic identity moderates perceptions of prejudice: Judgments of personal versus group discrimination and subtle versus blatant bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 550-561.
46. Pettigrew, T.F., & Tropp, L.R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent meta-analytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination. 'The Claremont symposium on applied social psychology ' (pp. 93-114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
47. Phinney, J. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34-49.
48. Postmes, T., & Branscombe, N.R. (2002). Influence of long-term racial environmental composition on subjective well-being in African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 735-751.
49. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
50. Rudman, L.A. (2004). Sources of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 79-82.
51. Rudman, L.A., Ashmore, R.D., & Gary, M.L. (2001). 'Unlearning' automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 856-868.
52. Rudman, L.A., Feinberg, J., & Fairchild, K. (2002). Minority members' implicit attitudes: Automatic ingroup bias as a function of group status. Social Cognition, 20, 294-320.
53. Rudman, L.A., & Goodwin, S.A. (2004). Gender differences in automatic in-group bias: Why do women like women more than men like men? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 494-509.
54. Satorra, A., & Bentler, P.M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors on covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variable analysis (pp. 399-419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
55. Sellers, R.M., & Shelton, J.N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092.
56. Sellers, R.M., Smith, M.A., Shelton, J.N., Rowley, S.A.J., & Chavous, T.M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18-39.
57. Shelton, J.N. (2000). A reconceptualization of how we study issues of racial prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 374-390.
58. Smith, E.R., & Henry, S. (1996). An ingroup becomes part of the self: Response time evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 635-642.
59. Snyder, C.R., Sympson, S.C., Ybasco, F.C., Borders, T.F., Babyak, M.A., & Higgins, R.L. (1996). Development and validation of the State Hope Scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 321-335.
60. Spicer, C.V. (1999). Effects of self-stereotyping and stereotype threat on African Americans' intellectual performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.
61. Staw, B.M., Sutton, R.I., & Pelled, L.H. (1994). Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes in the workplace. Organization Science, 5, 51-71.
62. Swim, J.K., & Stangor, C. (1998). Prejudice: The target's perspective. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
63. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1986). An integrative theory of intergroup relation. In S. Worchel W. & G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, Nelson-Hall.
64. Tropp, L.R., & Wright, S.C. (2001). Ingroup identification as the inclusion of ingroup in the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 585-600.
65. Veenhoven, R. (1988). The utility of happiness. Social Indicators Research, 20, 333-354.
66. Zhang, A.Y., & Snowden, L.R. (1999). Ethnic characteristics of mental disorders in five U.S. communities. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 134-146.