Role of the serotonin system in ADHD: Treatment implications

Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 7, Issue 10, 2007, Pages 1357-1374

  Oades, Robert D ^a  

^a Clinic for Child Psychiatry   (Germany)

Author keywords

Attention; Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; Genetics; Glia; Impulsivity; Motor; Neurotrophin; Serotonin

Indexed keywords

AMINE OXIDASE (FLAVIN CONTAINING); BUSPIRONE; CITALOPRAM; FENFLURAMINE; IMIPRAMINE; RISPERIDONE; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN 1 RECEPTOR; SEROTONIN 2 RECEPTOR; TRYPTOPHAN HYDROXYLASE;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BRAIN REGION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITION; DRUG MECHANISM; EVENT RELATED POTENTIAL; GENE MAPPING; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HOMOZYGOSITY; HUMAN; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SEROTONIN METABOLISM; SEROTONINERGIC SYSTEM; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; HUMANS; RECEPTORS, SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN;

EID: 35548995066     PISSN: 14737175     EISSN: 17448360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14737175.7.10.1357     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. Banaschewski T, Coghill DR, Santosh PJ et al. Long-acting medications for the hyperkinetic disorders: a systematic review and European treatment guidelines. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 15, 476-495 (2006).
2. Asherson P. Clinical assessment and treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Expert Rev. Neurother. 5, 525-539 (2005).
3. No authors listed. Medication for children with attentional disorders. Committee of Children with Disabilities and Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 98, 301-304 (1996).
4. Jensen PS, Arnold LE. National institute of mental health multimodal treatment study of ADHD follow-up: 24-month outcomes of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 113, 754-761 (2004).
5. Oades RD. Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADDH): the contribution of catecholaminergic activity. Prog. Neurobiol. 29, 365-391 (1987).
6. Zametkin AJ, Rapoport JL. Neurobiology of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 26, 676-686 (1987).
7. Steinbusch HWM. Distribution of serotonin immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the rat: cell bodies and terminals. Neuroscience 6, 557-618 (1981).
8. 2A receptors in the human cerebellum and alterations in schizophrenia. Synapse 42, 104-114 (2001).
9. Sari Y. Serotonin1B receptors: from protein to physiological function and behavior. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 28, 565-582 (2004).
10. Jacobs BL, Fornal CA. Serotonin and behavior: a general hypothesis. In: Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress. Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ (Eds). Raven Press, NY, USA 461-469 (1995).
11. Karadottir R, Attwell D. Neurotransmitter receptors in the life and death of oligodendrocytes. Neuroscience 145, 1426-1438 (2007).
12. Cote F, Fligny C, Bayard E et al. Maternal serotonin is crucial for murine embryonic development. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 329-334 (2007).
13. Tork I. Anatomy of the serotonergic system. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 600, 9-34 (1990). • Classic summary description of the anatomy and projections of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) systems in the CNS.
14. Jacobs BL, Azmitia EC. Structure and function of the brain serotonin system. Physiol. Rev. 72, 165-229 (1992). • Benchmark review of the 5-HT system.
15. Kosofsky BE, Molliver ME. The serotonergic innervation of the cerebral cortex: different classes of axon terminals arise from the dorsal and median raphe nuclei. Synapse 1, 153-168 (1987).
16. Soghomonian J-J, Descarries L, Watkins KC. Serotonin innervation in adult rat neostriatum. II. Ultrastructural features: a radioautographic and immunocytochemical study. Brain Res. 481, 67-86 (1989).
17. Oades RD. The roles of norepinephrine and serotonin in ADHD. In: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: From Genes to Animal Models to Patients. Gozal D, Molfese DL (Eds). Humana Press, Tootawa, NY, USA 97-130 (2005). •• Extensive, multidisciplinary view of function and dysfunction in the developing CNS, and on potential differential contributions to features of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
18. Coleman M. Serotonin concentrations in whole blood of hyperactive children. J. Pediatr. 78, 985-990 (1971).
19. Saul RC, Ashby CD. Measurement of whole blood serotonin as a guide in prescribing psycho-stimulant medication for children with attentional deficits. Clin. Neuropharmacology 9, 189-195 (1986).
20. Ferguson HB, Pappas BA, Trites RL et al. Plasma free and total tryptophan, blood serotonin, and the hyperactivity syndrome: no evidence for the serotonin deficiency hypothesis. Biol. Psychiatry 16, 231-238 (1981).
21. Bhagnan HN, Coleman M, Coursina DB. The effect of pyridoxine hydrochloride on blood serotonin and pyridoxal phopsphate contents in hyperactive children. Pediatrics 55, 437-441 (1975).
22. Spivak B, Vered Y, Yoran-Hegesh R, Averbuch E, Mester R, Graf E. Circulatory levels of catecholamines, serotonin and lipids in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 99, 300-304 (1999).
23. Irwin M, Belendink K, McCloskay K, Freedman DX. Trypotophan metabolism in children with attention deficit disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 138, 1082-1085 (1981).
24. Shetty T, Chase TN. Central monoamines and hyperkinesis of childhood. Neurology 26, 1000-1002 (1976).
25. Castellanos FX, Elia J, Kruesi MJP et al. Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 52, 305-316 (1994).
26. Rapoport JL, Quinn PO, Scribanic N et al. Platelet serotonin of hyperactive school age boys. Br. J. Psychiatry 125, 138-140 (1974).
27. Kusaga A, Yamashita Y, Koeda T et al. Increased urine phenylethylamine after methylphenidate treatment in children with ADHD. Ann. Neurol. 52, 371-374 (2002).
28. Oades RD, Müller BW. The development of conditioned blocking and monoamine metabolism in children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder or complex tics and healthy controls: an exploratory analysis. Behav. Brain Res. 88, 95-102 (1997).
29. Oades RD, Daniels R, Rascher W. Plasma neuropeptide Y levels, monoamine metabolism, electrolyte excretion and drinking behavior in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychiatry Res. 80, 177-186 (1998).
30. Oades RD, Roepcke B, Schepker R. A test of conditioned blocking and its development in childhood and adolescence: relationship to personality and monoamine metabolism. Dev. Neuropsychol. 12, 207-230 (1996).
31. Oades RD. Dopamine may be 'hyper' with respect to noradrenaline metabolism, but 'hypo' with respect to serotonin metabolism in children with ADHD. Behav. Brain Res. 130, 97-101 (2002). • Short summary of evidence from 5 years ago on the level of dopamine activity relative to that of norepinephrine and serotonin.
32. 2 receptor antagonism reduces hyperactivity induced by amphetamine, cocaine and MK-801 but not D1 agonist c-APB. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 63, 237-244 (1999).
33. Barr AM, Lehmann-Masten V, Paulus M et al. The selective serotonin-2A receptor antagonist M100907 reverses behavioral deficits in dopamine transporter knockout mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 221-228 (2004).
34. 2A/2C receptors. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 564, 123-130 (2007).
35. 1A/B receptor antagonist/5-HT transport inhibitor SB-649915-B. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 192, 121-133 (2007).
36. Pollier F, Sarre S, Aguerre S et al. Serotonin reuptake inhibition by citalopram in rat strains differing for their emotionality. Neuropsychopharmacology 22, 64-76 (2000).
37. Durand M, Berton O, Aguerre S. Effects of repeated fluoxetine on anxiety-related behaviours, central serotonin systems and the corticotropic axis in SHR and WKY rats. Neuropharmacology 38, 893-907 (1999).
38. Stocker SD, Muldoon MF, Sved AF. Blunted fenfluarmine-evoked prolactin secretion in hypertensive rats. Hypertension 42, 719-724 (2003).
39. 3Hdopamine release from nucleus accumbens slices and monoamine levels in a rat model for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurochem. Res. 20, 427-433 (1995).
40. Boix F, Qiao S-W, Kolpus T et al. Chronic MAO-B inhibition does not affect behavior in an animal model of attention deficit disorder. Eur. J. Neurosci. 8, 172 (1995).
41. Hoffmann P, Elam M, Thoren P et al. Effects of long-lasting voluntary running on the cerebral levels of dopamine, serotonin and their metabolites in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Life Sci. 54, 855-861 (1994).
42. 2A receptor-mediated inositol phosphate production in the spontaneously hypertensive rat and Lewis rat strains. Neurosci. Lett. 236, 112-116 (1997).
43. Berton O, Aguerre S, Sarrieau A et al. Differential effects of social stress on central serotonergic activity and emotional reactivity in Lewis and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Neuroscience 82, 147-159 (1997).
44. Dev BR, Philip L. Extracellular catechol and indole turnover in the nucleus of the solitary tract of spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar-Kyoto normotensive rats in response to drug-induced changes in arterial blood pressure. Brain Res. Bull. 40, 111-116 (1996).
45. Tsukamoto K, Sved AF, Ito S et al. Enhanced serotonin-mediated responses in the nucleus tractus solitarius of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Brain Res. 863, 1-8 (2000).
46. Russell VA, Lam D, Sagvolden T et al. Monoaminergic aspects of animal models of ADHD. In: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Hyperkinetic Syndrome: Current Ideas and Ways Forward. Oades RD (Ed.). Nova Science Publishing Inc., Hauppauge, NY, USA 77-108 (2006). •• Major review of the neurobiological work with animal models, especially the spontaneously hypertensive rat model, emphasizing the contributions of dopamine and norepinephrine.
47. Mehlman PT, Westergaard GC, Hoos BJ et al. CSF 5-HIAA and night-time activity in free-ranging primates. Neuropsychopharmacology 22, 210-218 (2000).
48. Castellanos FX, Elia J, Kruesi MJP et al. Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid predicts behavioral response to stimulants in 45 boys with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Neuropsychopharmacology 14, 125-137 (1996).
49. Gadow KD. Pediatric psychopharmacology: a review of recent research. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 33, 153-195 (1992).
50. Malhotra S, Santosh PJ. An open clinical trial of buspirone in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 37, 364-371 (1998).
51. Clarke AR, Barry RJ, McCarthy R et al. EEG predictors of good response to imipramine hydrochloride in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Hyperkinetic Syndrome: Current Ideas and Ways Forward. Oades RD (Ed.). Nova Science Publishing Inc., Hauppauge, NY, USA 77-108 (2006).
52. Leonard BE, McCartan D, White J et al. Methylphenidate: a review of its neuropharmacological, neuropsychological and adverse clinical effects. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 19, 151-180 (2004). • Very useful summary of the physiological and psychological effects of the most widely used medication for ADHD.
53. Treisman AM. Strategies and models of selective attention. Psychol. Rev. 76, 282-299 (1969).
54. Shiffrin RM, Schneider W. Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychol. Rev. 84, 127-190 (1977).
55. Posner MI, Snyder CRR. Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In: Attention and Performance. Rabbitt PM, Dornic S (Eds). Academic Press, London, NY, USA 669-681 (1975).
56. Neisser U. Cognitive Psychology. Appleton-Century-Croft, NY, USA (1967).
57. Posner MI, Petersen SE. The attention system of the human brain. Ann. Rev. Neuroscience 13, 25-42 (1990).
58. Jacobs BL, Fornal CA, Wilkinson LO. Neurophysiological and neurochemical studies of brain serotonergic neurons in behaving animals. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 600, 260-271 (1990).
59. Oades RD. The role of noradrenaline in tuning and dopamine in switching between signals in the CNS. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 9, 261-283 (1985).
60. Posner MI, Rothbart MK, Sheese BE. Attention genes. Dev. Sci. 10, 24-29 (2007).
61. Hurley LM, Pollak GD. Serotonin differentially modulates responses to tones and frequency-modulated sweeps in the inferior colliculus. J. Neurosci. 19, 8071-8082 (1999).
62. Hegerl U, Juckel G. Auditory evoked dipole source activity: indicator of central serotonergic dysfunction in psychiatric patients? Pharmacopsychiatry 27, 75-78 (1994).
63. Pfefferbaum A, Roth WT, Ford JM. Event-related potentials in the study of psychiatric disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 559-564 (1995).
64. Oades RD. Connections between studies of the neurobiology of attention, psychotic processes and event-related potentials. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 44, 428-438 (1995).
65. Hegerl U, Juckel G. Intensity dependence of auditory evoked potentials as an indicator of central serotonergic neurotransmission: a new hypothesis. Biol. Psychiatry 33, 173-187 (1993).
66. Gallinat J, Senkowski D, Wernicke C et al. Allelic variants of the functional promoter polymorphism of the human serotonin transporter gene is associated with auditory cortical stimulus processing. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 530-532 (2003).
67. Curran S, Purcell S, Craig I et al. The serotonin transporter gene as a QTL for ADHD. Am. J. Med. Genet. 134, 42-47 (2005). • Demonstration of unusually clear quantitative trait locus genetic associations between some markers of 5-HT activity and ADHD-like symptoms in the general population.
68. Li J, Wang Y, Zhou R et al. Association between polymorphisms in serotonin transporter gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Chinese Han subjects. Am. J. Med. Genet. 144B, 14-19 (2007).
69. Nathan PJ, Segrave R, Phan KL et al. Direct evidence that acutely enhancing serotonin with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram modulates the loudness dependence of the auditory evoked potential (LDAEP) marker of central serotonin function. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 21, 47-52 (2006).
70. Uhl I, Gorynia I, Gallinat J et al. Is the loudness dependence of auditory evoked potentials modulated by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram in healthy subjects? Hum. Psychopharmacol. 21, 463-471 (2005).
71. Nathan PJ, O'Neill B, Croft RJ. Is the loudness dependence of the auditory evoked potential a sensitive and selective in vivo marker of central serotonergic function? Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 1584-1585 (2005).
72. Dierks T, Barta S, Demisch L et al. Intensity dependence of auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) as biological marker for cerebral serotonin levels: effects of tryptophan depletion in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 146, 101-107 (2000).
73. Kähkönen S, Mäkinen V, Jääskeläinen IP et al. Serotonergic modulation of mismatch negativity. Psychiatry Res. 138, 61-74 (2005).
74. Oades RD, Dittmann-Balcar A, Schepker R et al. Auditory event-related potentials and mismatch negativity in healthy children and those with attention-deficit- or Tourette-like symptoms. Biol. Psychol. 43, 163-185 (1996).
75. Hegerl U. Event-related potentials and clinical response to serotonin agonists in patients with affective disorders. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 248(Suppl. 2), 75 (1998).
76. Satterfield JH, Schell AM, Nicholas T. Preferential processing of attended stimuli in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal boys. Psychophysiology 31, 1-10 (1994).
77. Johnstone SJ, Barry RJ, Anderson JW. Topographic distribution and developmental timecourse of auditory event-related potentials in two subtypes of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Int. J. Psychophysiology 42, 73-94 (2001).
78. Sergeant JA, van der Meere JJ. Convergence of approaches in localizing the hyperactivity deficit. In: Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (Volume 13). Lahey BB, Kazdin AE (Eds). Plenum Press, NY, USA 207-245 (1990).
79. Oades RD. Differential measures of sustained attention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity or tic disorders: relationship to monoamine metabolism. Psychiatry Res. 93, 165-178 (2000).
80. Nigg JT. Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 1424-1435 (2005). •• All-round discussion of the neuropsychology of the domains of function impaired in ADHD and the tasks used to demonstrate the problems.
81. Oades RD, Christiansen H. Cognitive switching processes in young people with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. (2007) (Epub ahead of print).
82. Jemel B, Achenbach C, Müller B et al. Mismatch negativity results from bilateral asymmetric dipole sources in the frontal and temporal lobes. Brain Topogr. 15, 13-27 (2002).
83. Escera C, Corral M-J, Yago E. An electrophysiological and behavioral investigation of involuntary attention towards auditory frequency, duration and intensity changes. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 14, 325-332 (2002).
84. Smith AB, Taylor EA, Brammer M et al. Neural correlates of switching set as measured in fast, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Hum. Brain Mapp. 21, 247-256 (2004).
85. Smith AB, Taylor EA, Brammer M et al. Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naive children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 1044-1051 (2006).
86. Rubia K, Lee F, Cleare AJ et al. Tryptophan depletion reduces right inferior prefrontal activation during no-go trials in fast, event-related fMRI. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 179, 791-803 (2004).
87. Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ et al. Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with ADHD. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 1067-1075 (2005).
88. Loose R, Kaufmann C, Auer DP et al. Human prefrontal and sensory cortical activity during divided attention tasks. Hum. Brain Mapp. 18, 249-259 (2003).
89. Häger F, Volz H-P, Gaser C et al. Challenging the anterior attentional system with a continuous performance task: a functional magenetic resonance imaging approach. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 248, 161-170 (1998).
90. Wiersema JR, van der Meere JJ, Roeyers H. ERP correlates of impaired error monitoring in children with ADHD. J. Neural Transm. 112, 1417-1430 (2005).
91. Liotti M, Pliszka SR, Perez R et al. Abnormal brain activity related to performance monitoring and error detection in children with ADHD. Cortex 41, 377-388 (2005).
92. Burgio-Murphy A, Klorman R, Shaywitz SE et al. Error-related event-related potentials in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, reading disorder, and math disorder. Biol. Psychol. 75, 75-86 (2007).
93. Hajcak G, Simons RF. Error-related brain activity in obsessive-compulsive undergraduates. Psychiatry Res. 110, 63-72 (2002).
94. Pailing PE, Segalowitz SJ, Dywan J et al. Error negativity and response control. Psychophysiology 39, 198-206 (2002).
95. Sheehan K, Lowe N, Kirley A et al. Tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) gene variants associated with ADHD. Mol. Psychiatry 10, 944-949 (2005).
96. Walitza S, Renner TJ, Dempfle A et al. Transmission disequilibrium of polymorphic variants in the tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 10, 1126-1132 (2005).
97. Brookes K-J, Xu X, Chen W et al. Analysis of 51 candidate genes in DSM-IV combined subtype attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: association signals in DRD4, DAT1 and 16 other genes. Mol. Psychiatry 11, 934-953 (2006).
98. C-11WAY-100635. Brain Res. 954, 173-182 (2002).
99. Carver CS, Miller CJ. Relations of serotonin function to personality: current views and a key methodological issue. Psychiatry Res. 144, 1-15 (2005).
100. 2A receptor binding. Neuropsychopharmacology 16, 211-216 (1997).
101. Tseng MH, Henderson A, Chow SMK et al. Relationship between motor proficiency, attention, impulse, and activity in children with ADHD. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 46, 381-388 (2004).
102. Hervey AS, Epstein JN, Curry JF. Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 18, 485-503 (2004).
103. Winstanley CA, Eagle DM, Robbins TW. Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: translation between clinical and preclinical studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 26, 379-395 (2006).
104. Daruna JH, Barnes PA. A neurodevelopmental view of impulsivity. In: The Impulsive Client: Theory Research And Treatment. McCown WG, Johnson JL, Shure MB (Eds). The American Psychological Association, WA, USA 23-44 (1993).
105. Evenden JL. Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 146, 348-361 (1999).
106. Faraone SV, Asherson P. IMAGE Consortium. The molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a view from the IMAGE project. Psychiatric Times 22(9), 21-23 (2005).
107. Clarke RA, Murphy DL, Constantino JN. Serotonin and externalizing behavior in young children. Psychiatry Res. 86, 29-40 (1999).
108. Knott P, Haroutunian V, Beirer L et al. Correlations postmortem between ventricular CSF and cortical tissue concentrationsof MHPG, 5-HIAA and HVA in Alzheimer's disease. Biol. Psychiatry 25, 112 (1989).
109. Stanley M, Träskman-Bendz L, Dorovini-Zis K. Correlations between aminergic metabolites simultaneously obtained from human CSF and brain. Life Sci. 37, 1279-1286 (1985).
110. Overtoom CCE, Verbaten MN, Kemner C et al. Effects of methylphenidate, desipramine and L-DOPA on attention and inibition in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav. Brain Res. 145, 7-15 (2003).
111. Oades RD, Slusarek M, Velling S et al. Serotonin platelet-transporter measures in childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): clinical versus experimental measures of impulsivity. World J. Biol. Psychiatry 3, 96-100 (2002).
112. 3H5-HT uptake: effect of administration of various antidepressant treatments. Neuropharmacology 32, 737-743 (1993).
113. Bekker EM, Overtoom CCE, Kooij JJS et al. Disentangling deficits in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 1129-1136 (2005).
114. Birmaher B, Stanley M, Greenhill L et al. Platelet imipramine binding in children and adolescents with impulsive behavior. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 29, 914-918 (1990).
115. Stadler C, Schmeck K, Nowraty I et al. Platelet 5-HT uptake in boys with conduct disorder. Neuropsychobiology 50, 244-251 (2004).
116. van Goozen SHM, Matthys W, Cohen-Kettenis PT et al. Plasma monoamine metabolites and aggression: two studies of normal and oppositional defiant disorder children. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 9, 141-147 (2003).
117. Rubia K, Taylor EA, Smith AB et al. Neuropsychological analyses of impulsiveness in childhood hyperactivity. Br. J. Psychiatry 179, 138-143 (2001). • Good summary of the tasks used and the neuroimaging results obtained for the bases of impulsivity in childhood ADHD.
118. Talbot PS. Functional neuroimaging of rapid tryptophan depletion. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 20, A2-A7 (2006).
119. Cahir MC. Effect of acute and chronic tryptophan depletion on serotonergic metabolism and receptors in the rat brain. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 20, A2-A5 (2006).
120. Dalley JW, Theobald DE, Eagle DM et al. Deficits in impulse control associated with tonically-elevated serotonergic function in rat prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 26, 716-728 (2002). • Important animal study examining the role of 5-HT in impulsivity.
121. Winstanley CA, Dalley JW, Theobald DEH et al. Fractionating impulsivity: contrasting effects of central 5-HT depletion on different measures of impulsive behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1331-1343 (2004).
122. Clarke HF, Walker SC, Dalley JW et al. Cognitive inflexibility after prefrontal serotonin depletion is behaviorally and neurochemically specific. Cereb. Cortex 17, 18-27 (2005).
123. Antrop I, Stock P, Verte S et al. ADHD and delay aversion: the influence of nontemporal stimulation on choice for delayed rewards. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 47, 1152-1158 (2006).
124. Winstanley CA, Dalley JW, Theobald DE et al. Global 5-HT depletion attenuates the ability of amphetamine to decrease impulsive choice on a delay-discounting task in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 170, 320-331 (2003).
125. Winstanley CA, Theobald DEH, Dalley JW et al. Interactions between serotonin and dopamine in the control of impulsive choice inrRats: therapeutic implications for impulse control disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 669-682 (2005).
126. Winstanley CA, Theobald DEH, Dalley JW et al. Double dissociation between serotonergic and dopaminergic modulation of medial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex during a test of impulsive choice. Cereb. Cortex 16, 106-114 (2006).
127. Kalenscher T, Ohmann T, Güntürkün O. The neuroscience of impulsive and self-controlled decisions. Int. J. Psychophysiology 62, 203-211 (2006). • Wide-ranging account across the animal kingdom of the anatomical and neurotransmitters bases of impulsivity, with special reference to temporal discounting/delayed gratification.
128. Higley JD, Thompson WW, Champoux M et al. Paternal and maternal genetic and environmental contributions to cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites in Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50, 615-623 (1993).
129. Virkkunen M, Goldman D, Nielsen DA et al. Low brain serotonin turnover rate (low CSF 5-HIAA) and impulsive violence. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 20, 271-275 (1995).
130. Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N et al. Multivariate analysis of associations of 42 genes in ADHD, ODD and conduct disorder. Clin. Genet. 58, 31-40 (2000).
131. Evenden JL, Ryan CN. The pharmacology of impulsive behavior in rats. VI: the effects of ethanol and selective serotonergic drugs on response choice with varying delays of reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 146, 413-421 (1999). • One of a useful series on the biological bases underlying impulsivity in animals.
132. 1B receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Chinese Han subjects. Am. J. Med. Genet. 132B, 59-63 (2005).
133. 1B receptor. Science 265, 1875-1878 (1994).
134. 1B knockout mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 132, 125-134 (1997).
135. 1B receptors in nucleus accumbens efferents enhance both rewarding and aversive effects of cocaine. Eur. J. Neurosci. 25, 3125-3131 (2007).
136. 1B receptor gene in 273 nuclear families from a multi-centre sample. Mol. Psychiatry 7, 718-725 (2002).
137. 1B receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 8, 98-102 (2003).
138. Ogdie MN, Fisher SE, Yang M et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: fine mapping supports linkage to 5p13, 6q12, 16p13 and 17p11. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75, 661-668 (2004).
139. 1B receptor gene (HTR1B) and the inattentive subtype of ADHD. Biol. Psychiatry 59, 460-469 (2006).
140. Bobb AJ, Addington AM, Sidransky E et al. Support for association between ADHD and two candidate genes: NET1 and DRD1. Am. J. Med. Genet. 134B, 67-72 (2005).
141. Heiser P, Dempfle A, Friedel S et al. Family-based association study of serotonergic candidate genes and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a German sample. J. Neural Transm. 114, 513-521 (2007).
142. Ickowicz A, Feng Y, Wigg K et al. The serotonin receptor HTR1B: gene polymorphisms in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 144B, 121-124 (2007).
143. 3H5-HT, in frontal cortex and the hippocampal region of the human brain. Brain Res. 638, 85-94 (1994).
144. Quist JF, Barr CL, Schachar RJ et al. Evidence for the serotonin 5-HTR2A gene as a susceptibility factor in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Mol. Psychiatry 5, 537-541 (2000).
145. Galili-Weisstub E, Segman RH. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder: review of genetic association studies. Isr. J. Psychiatry Relat. Sci. 40, 57-66 (2003).
146. Guimara APM, Zeni C, Polanczyk GV et al. Serotonin genes and attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in a Brazilian sample: preferential transmission of the HTR2A 452His allele to affected boys. Am. J. Med. Genet. 144B, 69-73 (2007).
147. 2A receptor polymorphism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Proceedings of the 16th World Congress of IACAPAP. Berlin, Germany, 22-26 August 2004.
148. Reuter M, Kirsch P, Hennig J. Inferring candidate genes for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) assessed by the World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS). J. Neural Transm. 113, 929-938 (2007).
149. 2A receptor gene -1438A>G polymorphism to outcome of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in adolescents. Am. J. Med. Genet. 141B, 473-476 (2006).
150. Li J, Wang Y, Zhou R et al. Association between polymorphisms in serotonin 2C receptor gene and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in Han Chinese subjects. Neurosci. Lett. 407, 107-111 (2006).
151. 2C receptors. Synapse 55, 242-251 (2005).
152. 2C receptors in the ventral tegmental area. Neuroscience 146, 286-297 (2007).
153. 2C receptors causes hypo-locomotion without anxiogenic-like cardiovascular adjustments in mice. Neuropharmacology 52, 949-957 (2007).
154. Li J, Wang Y, Zhou R et al. Association of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder with serotonin 4 receptor gene polymorphisms in Han Chinese subjects. Neurosci. Lett. 401, 6-9 (2006).
155. 4 agonists. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 918-925 (2005).
156. 4 receptor partial agonist, in animal models of amnesia. Brain Res. 1121, 207-215 (2006).
157. 125ISB 207710. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacology 13, 228-234 (2003).
158. Paolucci E, Berretta N, Tozzi A et al. Depression of mGluR-mediated IPSCs by 5-HT in dopamine neurons of the rat substantia nigra pars compacta. Eur. J. Neurosci. 13, 2743-2750 (2003).
159. Li J, Wang Y, Zhou R et al. No association of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder with genes of the serotonergic pathway in Han Chinese subjects. Neurosci. Lett. 403, 172-175 (2006).
160. Sheehan K, Hawi Z, Gill M et al. No association between TPH2 gene polymorphisms and ADHD in a UK sample. Neurosci. Lett. 412, 105-107 (2007).
161. Reuter M, Ott U, Vaitl D et al. Impaired executive control associated with a variation in the tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19, 401-408 (2007).
162. Canli T, Omura K, Haas BW et al. Beyond affect: a role for genetic variation of the serotonin transporter in neural activation during a cognitive attention task. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102, 12224-12229 (2005).
163. Manor I, Eisenberg J, Tyano S et al. Family-based association study of the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. 105, 91-95 (2001).
164. Zoroglu SS, Erdal ME, Alasehirli B et al. Significance of serotonin transporter gene 5-HTTLPR and variable number of tandem repeat polymorphism in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychobiology 41, 176-181 (2002).
165. Kent L, Doerry U, Hardy E et al. Evidence that variation at the serotonin transporter gene influences susceptibility to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): analysis and pooled analysis. Mol. Psychiatry 7, 908-912 (2002).
166. Langley K, Payton A, Hamshere ML et al. No evidence of association of two 5-HT transporter gene polymorphisms and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr. Genet. 13, 107-110 (2003).
167. Seeger G, Schloss P, Schmidt MH. Marker gene polymorphisms in hyperkinetic disorder - predictors of clinical response to treatment with methylphenidate? Neurosci. Lett. 313, 45-48 (2001).
168. Seeger G, Schloss P, Schmidt MH et al. Gene-environment interaction in hyperkinetic conduct disorder (HD + CD) as indicated by season of birth variations in dopamine receptor (DRD4) gene polymorphism. Neurosci. Lett. 366, 282-286 (2004).
169. Wigg KG, Takhar A, Ickowicz A et al. Gene for the serotonin transporter and ADHD: no association with two functional polymorphisms. Am. J. Med. Genet. 141B, 566-570 (2006).
170. Schalling D, Asberg M, Edman G et al. Markers for vulnerability to psychopathology: temperament traits associated with platelet MAO activity. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 76, 172-182 (1987).
171. Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Buckholtz JW, Kolachana B et al. Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 6269-6274 (2006).
172. Jiang S, Xin R, Lin S et al. Linkage studies between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the monoamine oxidase genes. Am. J. Med. Genet. 105, 783-788 (2001).
173. Domschke K, Sheehan K, Lowe N et al. Association analysis of the monoamine oxidase A and B genes with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in an Irish sample: preferential transmission of the MAO-A 941G allele to affected children. Am. J. Med. Genet. 134B, 110-114 (2005).
174. Das M, Bhowmik AD, Sinha S et al. MAOA promoter polymorphism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in Indian children. Am. J. Med. Genet. 141B, 637-642 (2006).
175. Lawson DC, Turie D, Langley K et al. Association analysis of monoamine oxidase A and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. 116B, 84-89 (2003).
176. Lung F-W, Yang P, Cheng T-S et al. No allele variation of the MAOA gene promoter in male chinese subjects with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychobiology 54, 147-151 (2006).
177. Thapar A, Langley K, Asherson P et al. Gene-environment interplay in attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder and the importance of a developmental perspective. Br. J. Psychiatry 190, 1-3 (2007).
178. Xu X, Brookes K-J, Chen C-K et al. Association study between the monoamine oxidase A gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Taiwanese samples. BMC Psychiatry 7, 10 (2007).
179. Manor I, Tyano S, Mel E et al. Family based and association studies of monoamine oxidase A and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): preferential transmission of the long promoter-region repeat and its association with impaired performance on a continuous performance test (TOVA). Mol. Psychiatry 7, 626-632 (2002).
180. Gade R, Muleman D, Blake H et al. Correlation of length of VNTR alleles at the X-linked MAO-A gene and phenotypic effect in Tourette syndrome and drug abuse. Mol. Psychiatry 3, 50-60 (1998).
181. Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE et al. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297, 851-855 (2002).
182. Manuck SB, Flory JD, Ferrell RE et al. A regulatory polymorphism of the monoamine oxidase-A gene may be associated with variability in aggression, impulsivity, and central nervous system serotonergic responsivity. Psychiatry Res. 95, 9-23 (2000).
183. Passamonti L, Fera F, Magariello A et al. Monoamine oxidase-A genetic variations influence brain activity associated with inhibitory control: new-insight into the neural correlates of impulsivity. Biol. Psychiatry 59, 334-340 (2006).
184. Oades RD. Function and dysfunction of monoamine interactions in children and adolescents with AD/HD. In: Neurotransmitter Interactions and Cognitive Function. Levin ED (Ed.). Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland 207-244 (2006). • Extensive review of the interactions of the monoamines emphasizing the neurobiological bases at the synapse, the networks involved and their relevance to dysfunction in ADHD.
185. Bonnin A, Torii M, Wang L et al. Serotonin modulates the response of embryonic thalamocortical axons to netrin-1. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 588-597 (2007).
186. 11CDASB positron emission tomography imaging of serotonin transporters in adolescent peer- and mother-reared Rhesus monkeys. J. Neurosci. 26, 4638-4643 (2006).
187. Slotkin TA, Ryde IT, Tate CA et al. Lasting effects of nicotine treatment and withdrawal on serotonergic systems and cell signaling in rat brain regions: separate or sequential exposure during fetal development and adulthood. Brain Res. Bull. 73, 259-272 (2007).
188. Macri S, Spinelli S, Adriani W et al. Early adversity and alcohol availability persistently modify serotonin and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis metabolism and related behavior: what experimental research on rodents and primates can tell us. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 31, 172-180 (2007).
189. Schmitz M, Denardin D, Laufer Silva T et al. Smoking during pregnancy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, predominantly inattentive type: a case-control study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 45, 1338-1345 (2006).
190. Elgen I, Bruaroy S, Laegreid LM. Lack of recognition and complexity of foetal alcohol neuroimpairments. Acta Paediatr. 96, 237-241 (2006).
191. Russell VA, Oades RD, Tannock R et al. Response variability in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a neuronal and glial energetics hypothesis. Behav. Brain Funct. 2, 30 (2006). •• A major hypothesis is proposed to explain two core problems in ADHD - behavioral variability and delayed development. The explanation is based on the energy supply to neurons from astrocytes and precursors from oligodendrocytes.
192. 1A receptors in the modulation of stress-induced lactate metabolism in the medial prefrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 186, 218-225 (2006).
193. 1 receptor subtypes to adenylyl cyclase. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 61, 90-99 (1998).
194. Magistretti PJ, Sorg O, Yu N et al. Neurotransmitters regulate energy metabolism in astrocytes: implications for the metabolic trafficking between neural cells. Dev. Neurosci. 15, 306-312 (1993).
195. 1A receptors and S-100β in development and plasticity. Perspect. Dev. Neurobiol. 2, 233-238 (1994).
196. Steiner J, Bernstein H-G, Bielau H et al. Evidence for a wide extra-astrocytic distribution of S100B in human brain. BMC Neurosci. 8, 2 (2007).
197. Druse MJ, Gillespie RA, Tajuddin NF et al. S100B-mediated protection against the pro-apoptotic effects of ethanol on fetal rhombencephalic neurons. Brain Res. 1150, 46-54 (2007).
198. Gobert A, Rivet J-M, Audinot V et al. Simultaneous quantification of serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline levels in single frontal cortex dialysates of freely-moving rats reveals a complex pattern of reciprocal auto- and heteroceptor-mediated control of release. Neuroscience 84, 413-429 (1998).