Viral encephalitis: A clinician's guide

Practical Neurology

Volumn 7, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 288-305

  Solomon, Tom ^a   Hart, Ian J ^b   Beeching, Nicholas J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^b ROYAL LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; ALPHA INTERFERON; AMPICILLIN; AMYLASE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BACTERIAL ANTIGEN; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CEFOTAXIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN; CIDOFOVIR; CORTICOSTEROID; COTRIMOXAZOLE; CYTARABINE; DEXAMETHASONE; FOSCARNET; GANCICLOVIR; GENTAMICIN; HEPARIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; KETAMINE; MANNITOL; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PLECONARIL; RIBAVIRIN; SEDATIVE AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALACICLOVIR;

ARBOVIRUS; BACTERIAL MENINGITIS; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BRAIN BIOPSY; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ANALYSIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DEPRESSION; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG RESPONSE; DYSPHASIA; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EPILEPSY; GLASGOW COMA SCALE; HEALTH CARE COST; HUMAN; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUMBAR PUNCTURE; LUNG EMBOLISM; MEDICAL EXAMINATION; MEMORY DISORDER; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PERSONALITY DISORDER; PLASMAPHERESIS; PNEUMONIA; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEIZURE; SERODIAGNOSIS; THROMBOSIS PREVENTION; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; VIRUS DETECTION; VIRUS ENCEPHALITIS; PATHOLOGY; UNITED KINGDOM;

ENCEPHALITIS, VIRAL; ENGLAND; HUMANS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES;

EID: 35448937706     PISSN: 14747758     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2007.129098     Document Type: Review

References (58)

1. Vincent A, Buckley C, Schott JM, et al. Potassium channel antibody-associated encephalopathy: a potentially immunotherapy-responsive form of limbic encephalitis. Brain 2004;127:701-12.
2. Kennedy PG. Viral encephalitis: causes, differential diagnosis, and management J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75(Suppl 1):i10-5.
3. Whitley R, Lakeman AD, Nahmias A, et al. DNA restriction-enzyme analysis of herpes simplex virus isolates obtained from patients with encephalitis. N Engl J Med 1982;307:1060-2.
4. Esiri MM. Herpes simplex encephalitis. An immunohistological study of the distribution of viral antigen within the brain. J Neurol Sci 1982;54:209-26.
5. Solomon T. Current concepts: flavivirus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2004;351:370-8.
6. Buckley A, Dawson A, Gould EA. Detection of seroconversion to West Nile virus, Usutu virus and Sindbis virus in UK sentinel chickens. Virol J 2006;3:71.
7. McMinn PC. An overview of the evolution of enterovirus 71 and its clinical and public health significance. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2002;26:91-107.
8. Chua KB, Goh KJ, Wong KT, et al. Fatal encephalitis due to Nipah virus among pig-farmers in Malaysia. Lancet 1999; 354:1257-9.
9. Bloom S, Wharton M. Mumps outbreak among young adults in UK. BMJ 2005;331:E363-4.
10. Rantala H, Uhari M. Occurrence of childhood encephalitis: a population-based study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989;8:426-30.
11. Koskiniemi M, Korppi M, Mustonen K, et al. Epidemiology of encephalitis in children. A prospective multicentre study. Eur J Pediatr 1997;156:541-5.
12. Davison KL, Crowcroft NS, Ramsay ME, et al. Viral encephalitis in England, 1989-1998: what did we miss? Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9:234-40.
13. Whitley RJ. Herpes simplex encephalitis: adolescents and adults. Antiviral Res 2006;71:141-8.
14. Raschilas F, Wolff M, Delatour F, et al. Outcome of and prognostic factors for herpes simplex encephalitis in adult patients: results of a multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:254-60.
15. Fodor PA, Levin MJ, Weinberg A, et al. Atypical herpes simplex virus encephalitis diagnosed by PCR amplification of viral DNA from CSF. Neurology 1998;51:554-9.
16. McGrath N, Anderson NE, Croxson MC, et al. Herpes simplex encephalitis treated with acyclovir: diagnosis and long term outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;63:321-6.
17. Whitty CJ, Lalloo D, Ustianowski A. Malaria: an update on treatment of adults in non-endemic countries. BMJ 2006;333:241-5.
18. Julian KG, Eidson M, Kipp AM, et al. Early season crow mortality as a sentinel for West Nile virus disease in humans, northeastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2002;2:145-55.
19. Solomon T, Marston D, Mallewa M, et al. Paralytic rabies after a two week holiday in India. BMJ 2005;331:501-3.
20. Nathwani D, McIntyre PG, White K, et al. Fatal human rabies caused by European bat Lyssavirus type 2a infection in Scotland. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:598-601.
21. Kneen R, Solomon T, Appleton R. Leading Article: The role of lumbar puncture in suspected CNS infection - a disappearing skill? Arch Dis Child 2002;87:181-3.
22. Waller D, Crawley J, Nosten F, et al. Intracranial pressure in childhood cerebral malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1991; 85:362-4.
23. Minns RA, Engleman HM, Stirling H. Cerebrospinal fluid pressure in pyogenic meningitis. Arch Dis Child 1989;64:814-20.
24. van de Beek D, de Gans J, Tunkel AR, et al. Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:44-53.
25. Proulx N, Frechette D, Toye B, et al. Delays in the administration of antibiotics are associated with mortality from adult acute bacterial meningitis. QJM 2005;98:291-8.
26. Heyderman RS, Lambert HP, O'Sullivan I, et al. Early management of suspected bacterial meningitis and meningococcal septicaemia in adults. J Infect 2003;46:75-7.
27. Whitley RJ, Cobbs CG, Alford CA Jr, et al. Diseases that mimic herpes simplex encephalitis. Diagnosis, presentation, and outcome. NIAD Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. JAMA 1989;262:234-9.
28. Kneen R, Solomon T, Appleton R. The role of lumbar puncture in children with suspected central nervous system infection. BMC Pediatrics 2002;2:8.
29. Chataway J, Davies NW, Farmer S, et al. Herpes simplex encephalitis: an audit of the use of laboratory diagnostic tests. QJM 2004;97:325-30.
30. Carrol ED, Beadsworth MB, Jenkins N, et al. Clinical and diagnostic findings of an echovirus meningitis outbreak in the north west of England. Postgrad Med J 2006;82:60-4.
31. Ooi MH, Wong SC, Podin Y, et al. Human enterovirus 71 disease in sarawak, malaysia: a prospective clinical, virological, and molecular epidemiological study. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:646-56.
32. Dennett C, Klapper PE, Cleator GM, et al. CSF pretreatment and the diagnosis of herpes encephalitis using the polymerase chain reaction. J Virol Methods 1991;34:101-4.
33. Jeffery KJ, Read SJ, Peto TE, et al. Diagnosis of viral infections of the central nervous system: clinical interpretation of PCR results. Lancet 1997;349:313-17.
34. Cinque P, Cleator GM, Weber T, et al. The role of laboratory investigation in the diagnosis and management of patients with suspected herpes simplex encephalitis: a consensus report. The EU Concerted Action on Virus Meningitis and Encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996;61:339-45.
35. Steiner I, Budka H, Chaudhuri A, et al. Viral encephalitis: a review of diagnostic methods and guidelines for management. Eur J Neurol 2005;12:331-43.
36. Goldwater PN, Rowland K, Thesinger M, et al. Rotavirus encephalopathy: pathogenesis reviewed. J Paediatr Child Health 2001;37:206-9.
37. Barah F, Vallely PJ, Chiswick ML, et al. Association of human parvovirus B19 infection with acute meningoencephalitis. Lancet 2001;358:729-30.
38. Rand K, Houck H, Lawrence R. Real-time polymerase chain reaction detection of herpes simplex virus in cerebrospinal fluid and cost savings from earlier hospital discharge. J Mol Diagn 2005; 7:511-16.
39. Tang YW, Espy MJ, Persing DH, et al. Molecular evidence and clinical significance of herpesvirus coinfection in the central nervous system. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:2869-72.
40. Ooi MH, Solomon T, Podin Y, et al. Evaluation of different clinical sample types in the diagnosis of human enterovirus 71 associated hand-foot-and-mouth disease. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45:1858-66.
41. Tien RD, Felsberg GJ, Osumi AK. Herpesvirus infections of the CNS: MR findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993;161:167-76.
42. McCabe K, Tyler K, Tanabe J. Diffusion-weighted MRI abnormalities as a clue to the diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis. Neurology 2003;61:1015-16.
43. Solomon T, Dung NM, Kneen R, et al. Seizures and raised intracranial pressure in Vietnamese patients with Japanese encephalitis. Brain 2002;125:1084-93.
44. Skoldenberg B, Forsgren M, Alestig K, et al. Acyclovir versus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis. Randomised multicentre study in consecutive Swedish patients. Lancet 1984;2:707-11.
45. Whitley RJ, Alford CA, Hirsch MS, et al. Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis. N Engl J Med 1986;314:144-9.
46. Yamada S, Kameyama T, Nagaya S, et al. Relapsing herpes simplex encephalitis: pathological confirmation of viral reactivation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003;74:262-4.
47. Coren ME, Buchdahl RM, Cowan FM, et al. Imaging and laboratory investigation in herpes simplex encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;67:243-5.
48. De Tiege X, Heron B, Lebon P, et al. Limits of early diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis in children: a retrospective study of 38 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:1335-9.
49. Chan PK, Chow PC, Peiris JS, et al. Use of oral valaciclovir in a 12-year-old boy with herpes simplex encephalitis. Hong Kong Med J 2000;6:119-21.
50. Kamei S, Sekizawa T, Shiota H, et al. Evaluation of combination therapy using aciclovir and corticosteroid in adult patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76:1544-9.
51. Openshaw H, Cantin EM. Corticosteroids in herpes simplex virus encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76:1469.
52. Boos J, Esiri MM. Viral encephalitis in humans. Washington DC: ASM Press, 2003.
53. Desmond RA, Accortt NA, Talley L, et al. Enteroviral meningitis: natural history and outcome of pleconaril therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:2409-14.
54. Webster AD. Pleconaril - an advance in the treatment of enteroviral infection in immuno-compromised patients. J Clin Virol 2005; 32:1-6.
55. Solomon T, Dung NM, Wills B, et al. Interferon alfa-2a in Japanese encephalitis: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:821-6.
56. Newton CRJC, Crawley J, Sowumni A, et al. Intracranial hypertension in Africans with cerebral malaria. Arch Dis Child 1997;76:219-26.
57. Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Beghi E, et al. The risk of unprovoked seizures after encephalitis and meningitis. Neurology 1988; 38:1407-10.
58. Solomon T, Whitley RJ. Arthropod-borne viral encephalitides. In: Scheld M, Whitley RJ, Marra C, eds. Infections of the central nervous system, Second edition. Philidelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2004.