Apraxia: a review

Progress in Brain Research

Volumn 164, Issue , 2007, Pages 61-83

  Petreska, Biljana ^a   Adriani, Michela ^a   Blanke, Olaf ^a   Billard, Aude G ^a  

^a EPFL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

apraxia; brain lesion; computational neuroscience; kinematic studies; multidisciplinary approach; neuropsychological models of apraxia

Indexed keywords

APHASIA; APRAXIA; BRAIN DAMAGE; COGNITION; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; LEFT HEMISPHERE; MOTOR CONTROL; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; REVIEW; RIGHT HEMISPHERE; TAXONOMY;

APRAXIAS; FUNCTIONAL LATERALITY; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL;

EID: 34848851874     PISSN: 00796123     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0079-6123(07)64004-7     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. Alexander M.P., Baker E., Naeser M.A., Kaplan E., and Palumbo C. Neuropsychological and neuroanatomical dimensions of ideomotor apraxia. Brain 115 (1992) 87-107
2. Arbib M., and Bota M. Language evolution: neural homologies and neuroinformatics. Neural Netw. 16 (2003) 1237-1260
3. Astafiev S.V., Stanley C.M., Shulman G.L., and Corbetta M. Extrastriate body area in human occipital cortex responds to the performance of motor actions. Nat. Neurosci. 7 5 (2004) 542-548
4. Avillac M., Denève S., Olivier E., Pouget A., and Duhamel J.-R. Reference frames for representing visual and tactile locations in parietal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 8 7 (2005) 941-949
5. Bartolo A., Cubelli R., Della Sala S., Drei S., and Marchetti C. Double dissociation between meaningful and meaningless gesture reproduction in apraxia. Cortex 37 (2001) 696-699
6. Basso A., Luzzatti C., and Spinnler H. Is ideomotor apraxia the outcome of damage to well-defined regions of the left hemisphere? Neuropsychological study of CAT correlation. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 43 (1980) 118-126
7. Batista A.P., Buneo C.A., Snyder L.H., and Andersen R.A. Reach plans in eye-centered coordinates. Science 285 5425 (1999) 257-260
8. Battaglia-Mayer A., Caminiti R., Lacquiniti F., and Zago M. Multiple levels of representation of reaching in the parieto-frontal network. Cereb. Cortex 13 (2003) 1009-1022
9. Binkofski F., Buccino G., Stephan K.M., Rizzolatti G., Seitz R.J., and Freund H.-J. A parieto-premotor network for object manipulation: evidence from neuroimaging. Exp. Brain Res. 128 (1999) 210-213
10. Binkofski F., Butler A., Buccino G., Heide W., Fink G., Freund H.-J., and Seitz R.J. Mirror apraxia affects the peripersonal mirror space. A combined lesion and cerebral activation study. Exp. Brain Res. 153 (2003) 210-219
11. Binkofski F., Kunesch E., Classen J., Seitz R.J., and Freund H.-J. Tactile apraxia: Unimodal apractic disorder of tactile object exploration associated with parietal lobe lesions. Brain 124 (2001) 132-144
12. Bizzi E., Mussa-Ivaldi F.A., and Giszter S. Computations underlying the execution of movement: a biological perspective. Science 253 (1991) 287-291
13. Bizzozero I., Costato D., Della Sala S., Papagno C., Spinnler H., and Venneri A. Upper and lower face apraxia: role of the right hemisphere. Brain 123 (2000) 2213-2230
14. Bullock D., and Grossberg S. Neural dynamics of planned arm movements: emergent invariants and speed-accuracy properties during trajectory formation. Psychol. Rev. 95 1 (1988) 49-90
15. Buneo C.A., and Andersen R.A. The posterior parietal cortex: sensorimotor interface for the planning and online control of visually guided movements. Neuropsychologia 44 13 (2006) 2594-2606
16. Buneo C.A., Jarvis M.R., Batista A.P., and Andersen R.A. Direct visuomotor transformations for reaching. Nature 416 (2002) 632-635
17. Buxbaum L.J., Giovannetti T., and Libon D. The role of dynamic body schema in praxis: evidence from primary progressive apraxia. Brain Cogn. 44 (2000) 166-191
18. Buxbaum L.J., Johnson-Frey S.H., and Bartlett-Williams M. Deficient internal models for planning hand-object interactions in apraxia. Neuropsychologia 43 (2005) 917-929
19. Buxbaum L.J., Kyle K.M., and Menon R. On beyond mirror neurons: internal representations subserving imitation and recognition of skilled object-related actions in humans. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 25 (2005) 226-239
20. Buxbaum L.J., Sirigu A., Schwartz M.F., and Klatzky R. Cognitive representations of hand posture in ideomotor apraxia. Neuropsychologia 41 (2003) 1091-1113
21. Cermak S. Developmental dyspraxia. In: Roy E.A. (Ed). Neuropsychological Studies of Apraxia and Related Disorders (1985), North-Holland, Amsterdam 225-248
22. Chaminade T., Meltzoff A.N., and Decety J. An fMRI study of imitation: action representation and body schema. Neuropsychologia 43 2 (2005) 115-127
23. Choi S.H., Na D.L., Kang E., Lee K.M., Lee S.W., and Na D.G. Functional magnetic resonance imaging during pantomiming tool-use gestures. Exp. Brain Res. 139 3 (2001) 311-317
24. Clark M.A., Merians A.S., Kothari A., Poizner H., Macauley B., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Spatial planning deficits in limb apraxia. Brain 117 (1994) 1093-1106
25. Cohen Y.E., and Andersen R.A. A common reference frame for movement plans in the posterior parietal cortex. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3 (2002) 553-562
26. Cubelli R., Marchetti C., Boscolo G., and Della Sala S. Cognition in action: testing a model of limb apraxia. Brain Cogn. 44 (2000) 144-165
27. Culham, J.C., Cavina-Pratesi, C. and Singhal, A. (2006) The role of parietal cortex in visuomotor control: what have we learned from neuroimaging? Neuropsychologia, 44(13): 2668-2684.
28. Decety J., Grèzes J., Costes N., Jeannerod M., Procyk E., Grassi E., and Fazio F. Brain activity during observation of actions. Influence of action content and subject's strategy. Brain 120 (1997) 1763-1777
29. Della Sala S., Faglioni P., Motto C., and Spinnler H. Hemisphere asymmetry for imitation of hand and finger movements, Goldenberg's hypothesis reworked. Neuropsychologia 44 8 (2006) 1496-1500
30. Della Sala S., Maistrello B., Motto C., and Spinnler H. A new account of face apraxia based on a longitudinal study. Neuropsychologia 44 7 (2006) 1159-1165
31. De Renzi E., Faglioni P., and Sorgato P. Modality specific and supramodal mechanisms of apraxia. Brain 105 (1982) 301-312
32. De Renzi E., and Lucchelli F. Ideational apraxia. Brain 111 (1988) 1173-1185
33. De Renzi E., Motti F., and Nichelli P. Imitating gestures. A quantitative approach to ideomotor apraxia. Arch. Neurol. 37 1 (1980) 6-10
34. Desmurget M., Epstein C.M., Turner R.S., Prablanc C., Alexander G.E., and Grafton S.T. Role of the posterior parietal cortex in updating reaching movements to a visual target. Nat. Neurosci. 2 6 (1999) 563-567
35. Desmurget M., Pélisson D., Rossetti Y., and Prablanc C. From eye to hand: planning goal-directed movements. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 22 6 (1998) 761-788
36. Downing P.E., Jiang Y., Shuman M., and Kanwisher N. A cortical area selective for visual processing of the human body. Science 293 (2001) 2470-2473
37. Duhamel J.-R., Bremmer F., BenHamed S., and Graf W. Spatial invariance of visual receptive fields in parietal cortex neurons. Nature 389 (1997) 845-848
38. Duhamel J.-R., Colby C.L., and Goldberg M.E. Ventral intraparietal area of the macaque: congruent visual and somatic response properties. J. Neurophysiol. 79 (1998) 126-136
39. Eskandar E.N., and Assad J.A. Dissociation of visual, motor and predictive signals in parietal cortex during visual guidance. Nat. Neurosci. 2 1 (1999) 88-93
40. Faglioni P., and Basso A. Historical perspectives on neuroanatomical correlates of limb apraxia. In: Roy E.A. (Ed). Neuropsychological studies of apraxia and related disorders (1985), North-Holland, Amsterdam 3-44
41. Flash T., and Hogan N. The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model. J. Neurosci. 5 (1985) 1688-1703
42. Gallese V., Fadiga L., Fogassi L., and Rizzolatti G. Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain 119 (1996) 593-609
43. Gerstner W., and Kistler W. Spiking Neuron Models: Single Neurons, Populations, Plasticity (2002), Cambridge University Press
44. Geschwind N. Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. Part I. Brain 88 (1965) 237-294
45. Goldenberg G. Imitating gestures and manipulating a mannikin - the representation of the human body in ideomotor apraxia. Neuropsychologia 33 1 (1995) 63-72
46. Goldenberg G. Matching and imitation of hand and finger postures in patients with damage in the left or right hemispheres. Neuropsychologia 37 5 (1999) 559-566
47. Goldenberg G. Imitation and matching of hand and finger postures. Neuroimage 14 (2001) S132-S136
48. Goldenberg G. Apraxia and beyond: life and work of Hugo Liepmann. Cortex 39 3 (2003) 509-524
49. Goldenberg G., and Hagmann S. The meaning of meaningless gestures: a study of visuo-imitative apraxia. Neuropsychologia 35 3 (1997) 333-341
50. Goldenberg G., Hermsdörfer J., and Spatt J. Ideomotor apraxia and cerebral dominance for motor control. Cogn. Brain Res. 3 (1996) 95-100
51. Goldenberg G., and Karnath H.-O. The neural basis of imitation is body part specific. J. Neurosci. 26 23 (2006) 6282-6287
52. Goldenberg G., Laimgruber K., and Hermsdörfer J. Imitation of gestures by disconnected hemispheres. Neuropsychologia 39 (2001) 1432-1443
53. Goodglass H., and Kaplan E. Disturbance of gesture and pantomime in aphasia. Brain 86 (1963) 703-720
54. Graham N.L., Zeman A., Young A.W., Patterson K., and Hodges J.R. Dyspraxia in a patient with corticobasal degeneration: the role of visual and tactile inputs to action. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 67 (1999) 334-344
55. Graziano M.S.A., Cooke D.F., and Taylor C.S. Coding the location of the arm by sight. Science 290 (2000) 1782-1786
56. Graziano M.S.A., and Gross C.G. Spatial maps for the control of movement. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 8 2 (1998) 195-201
57. Graziano M.S.A., Hu X.T., and Gross C.G. Visuospatial properties of ventral premotor cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 77 (1997) 2268-2292
58. Grefkes C., Ritzl A., Zilles K., and Fink G.R. Human medial intraparietal cortex subserves visuomotor coordinate transformation. Neuroimage 23 (2004) 1494-1506
59. Haaland K.Y., and Flaherty D. The different types of limb apraxia errors made by patients with left vs. right hemisphere damage. Brain Cogn. 3 4 (1984) 370-384
60. Haaland K.Y., and Harrington D.L. Hemispheric asymmetry of movement. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6 (1996) 796-800
61. Haaland K.Y., Harrington D.L., and Knight R.T. Spatial deficits in ideomotor limb apraxia. A kinematic analysis of aiming movements. Brain 122 (1999) 1169-1182
62. Haaland K.Y., Harrington D.L., and Knight R.T. Neural represantations of skilled movement. Brain 123 (2000) 2306-2313
63. Haaland K.Y., Prestopnik J.L., Knight R.T., and Lee R.R. Hemispheric asymmetries for kinematic and positional aspects of reaching. Brain 127 (2004) 1145-1158
64. Halsband U., Schmitt J., Weyers M., Binkofski F., Grützner G., and Freund H.-J. Recognition and imitation of pantomimed motor acts after unilateral parietal and premotor lesions: a perspective on apraxia. Neuropsychologia 39 (2001) 200-216
65. Hanna-Pladdy B., Heilman K.M., and Foundas A.L. Cortical and subcortical contributions to ideomotor apraxia: analysis of task demands and error types. Brain 124 (2001) 2513-2527
66. Haruno M., Wolpert D.M., and Kawato M. MOSAIC model for sensorimotor learning and control. Neural Comput. 13 (2001) 2201-2220
67. Heath M., Roy E.A., Black S.E., and Westwood D.A. Intransitive limb gestures and apraxia following unilateral stroke. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 23 5 (2001) 628-642
68. Heilman K.M. Ideational apraxia - a re-definition. Brain 96 (1973) 861-864
69. Heilman K.M., Maher L.M., Greenwald M.L., and Rothi L.J. Conceptual apraxia from lateralized lesions. Neurology 49 2 (1997) 457-464
70. Heilman K.M., and Rothi L.J. Apraxia. In: Heilman K.M., and Valenstein E. (Eds). Clinical Neuropsychology. 3rd ed. (1993), Oxford University Press, New York 141-163
71. Heilman K.M., Rothi L.G., Mack L., Feinberg T., and Watson R.T. Apraxia after a superior parietal lesion. Cortex 22 1 (1986) 141-150
72. Heilman K.M., Rothi L.J., and Valenstein E. Two forms of ideomotor apraxia. Neurology 32 (1982) 342-346
73. Heilman K.M., Schwartz H.D., and Geschwind N. Defective motor learning in ideomotor apraxia. Neurology 25 11 (1975) 1018-1020
74. Helms Tillery S.I., Soechting J.F., and Ebner T.J. Somatosensory cortical activity in relation to arm posture: nonuniform spatial tuning. J. Neurophysiol. 76 4 (1996) 2423-2438
75. Hermsdörfer J., Blankenfeld H., and Goldenberg G. The dependence of ipsilesional aiming deficits on task demands, lesioned hemisphere, and apraxia. Neuropsychologia 41 (2003) 1628-1643
76. Hermsdörfer J., Goldenberg G., Wachsmuth C., Conrad B., Ceballos-Baumann A.O., Bartenstein P., Schwaiger M., and Boecker H. Cortical correlates of gesture processing: clues to the cerebral mechanisms underlying apraxia during the imitation of meaningless gestures. Neuroimage 14 (2001) 149-161
77. Hermsdörfer J., Hentze S., and Goldenberg G. Spatial and kinematic features of apraxic movement depend on the mode of execution. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 1642-1652
78. Hermsdörfer J., Mai N., Spatt J., Marquardt C., Veltkamp R., and Goldenberg G. Kinematic analysis of movement imitation in apraxia. Brain 119 (1996) 1575-1586
79. Hersch, M. and Billard, A.G. (2006) A biologically-inspired model of reaching movements. In Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE/RAS-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics, Pisa, pp. 1067-1072.
80. Ietswaart M., Carey D.P., and Della Sala S. Tapping, grasping and aiming in ideomotor apraxia. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 1175-1184
81. Ietswaart M., Carey D.P., Della Sala S., and Dijkhuizen R.S. Memory-driven movements in limb apraxia: is there evidence for impaired communication between the dorsal and the ventral streams?. Neuropsychologia 39 (2001) 950-961
82. Iriki A., Tanaka M., and Iwamura Y. Coding of modified body schema during tool use by macaque postcentral neurons. Neuroreport 7 (1996) 2325-2330
83. Jacobs D.H., Adair J.C., Macauley B., Gold M., Gonzalez Rothi L.J., and Heilman K.M. Apraxia in corticobasal degeneration. Brain Cogn. 40 (1999) 336-354
84. Jeannerod M., Arbib M., Rizzolatti G., and Sakata H. Grasping objects: the cortical mechanisms of visuomotor transformation. Trends Neurosci. 18 (1995) 314-320
85. Jeannerod M., and Decety J. Mental motor imagery: a window into the representational stages of action. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5 (1995) 727-732
86. Johnson-Frey S.H., Newman-Norlund R., and Grafton S.T. A distributed left hemisphere network active during planning of everyday tool use skills. Cereb. Cortex 15 (2005) 681-695
87. Kalaska J.F., Scott S.H., Cisek P., and Sergio L.E. Cortical control of reaching movements. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7 (1997) 849-859
88. Kertesz A., and Ferro J.M. Lesion size and location in ideomotor apraxia. Brain 107 (1984) 921-933
89. Kertesz A., and Hooper P. Praxis and language: the extent and variety of apraxia in aphasia. Neuropsychologia 20 3 (1982) 275-286
90. Kertzman C., Schwarz U., Zeffiro T.A., and Hallett M. The role of posterior parietal cortex in visually guided reaching movements in humans. Exp. Brain. Res. 114 (1997) 170-183
91. Kohonen, T. (2001) Self-Organizing Maps, 3rd ed., Springer Series in Information Sciences. Vol. 30. Springer, Berlin.
92. Koski L., Iacoboni M., and Mazziotta J.C. Deconstructing apraxia: understanding disorders of intentional movement after stroke. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 15 (2002) 71-77
93. Krakauer J.W., Ghilardi M.-F., and Ghez C. Independent learning of internal models for kinematic and dynamic control of reaching. Nat. Neurosci. 2 11 (1999) 1026-1031
94. Krams M., Rushworth M.F., Deiber M.-P., Frackowiak R.S., and Passingham R.E. The preparation, execution and suppression of copied movements in the human brain. Exp. Brain Res. 120 3 (1998) 386-398
95. Laeng B. Constructional apraxia after left or right unilateral stroke. Neuropsychologia 44 9 (2006) 1595-1606
96. Lausberg H., and Cruz R.F. Hemispheric specialisation for imitation of hand-head positions and finger configurations: a controlled study in patients with complete callosotomy. Neuropsychologia 42 (2004) 320-334
97. Lausberg H., Cruz R.F., Kita S., Zaidel E., and Ptito A. Pantomime to visual presentation of objects: left hand dyspraxia in patients with complete callosotomy. Brain 126 (2003) 343-360
98. Lausberg H., Davis M., and Rothenhäusler A. Hemispheric specialization in spontaneous gesticulation in a patient with callosal disconnection. Neuropsychologia 38 (2000) 1654-1663
99. Lausberg H., Göttert R., Münssinger U., Boegner F., and Marx P. Callosal disconnection syndrome in a left-handed patient due to infarction of the total length of the corpus callosum. Neuropsychologia 37 (1999) 253-265
100. Lee D.N., Craig C.M., and Grealy M.A. Sensory and intrinsic coordination of movement. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 266 (1999) 2029-2035
101. Lehmkuhl G., Poeck K., and Willmes K. Ideomotor apraxia and aphasia: an examination of types and manifestations of apraxic symptoms. Neuropsychologia 21 3 (1983) 199-212
102. Leiguarda R. Limb apraxia: cortical or subcortical. Neuroimage 14 (2001) S137-S141
103. Leiguarda R.C., and Marsden C.D. Limb apraxias: higher order disorders of sensorimotor integration. Brain 123 (2000) 860-879
104. Maravita A., Spence C., and Driver J. Multisensory integration and the body schema: close to hand and within reach. Curr. Biol. 13 (2003) R531-R539
105. Marchetti C., and Della Sala S.D. On crossed apraxia. Description of a right-handed apraxic patient with right supplementary motor area damage. Cortex 33 2 (1997) 341-354
106. Matelli M., and Luppino G. Parietofrontal circuits for action and space perception in the macaque monkey. Neuroimage 14 (2001) S27-S32
107. Merians A.S., Clark M., Poizner H., Jacobs D.H., Adair J.C., Macauley B., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Apraxia differs in corticobasal degeneration and left-parietal stroke: a case study. Brain Cogn. 40 (1999) 314-335
108. Merians A.S., Clark M., Poizner H., Macauley B., Gonzalez Rothi L.J., and Heilman K.M. Visual-imitative dissociation apraxia. Neuropsychologia 35 11 (1997) 1483-1490
109. Moll J., de Oliveira-Souza R., Passman L.J., Souza-Lima F., and Andreiuolo P.A. Functional MRI correlates of real and imagined tool-use pantomime. Neurology 54 (2000) 1331-1336
110. Morasso P. Spatial control of arm movements. Exp. Brain Res. 42 (1981) 223-227
111. Mühlau M., Hermsdörfer J., Goldenberg G., Wohlschläger A.M., Castrop F., Stahl R., Röttinger M., Erhard P., Haslinger B., Ceballos-Baumann A.O., Conrad B., and Boecker H. Left inferior parietal dominance in gesture imitation: an fMRI study. Neuropsychologia 43 (2005) 1086-1098
112. Nehaniv C.L., and Dautenhahn K. The correspondence problem. In: Dautenhahn K., and Nehaniv C.L. (Eds). Imitation in Animals and Artifacts (2002), MIT Press, London 41-61
113. Ochipa C., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Conceptual apraxia in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 115 (1992) 1061-1071
114. Ochipa C., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Conduction apraxia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 57 (1994) 1241-1244
115. Orban G.A., Van Essen D., and Vanduffel W. Comparative mapping of higher visual areas in monkeys and humans. Trends Cogn. Sci. 8 7 (2004) 315-324
116. Oztop E., and Arbib M.A. Schema design and implementation of the grasp-related mirror neuron system. Biol. Cybern. 78 (2002) 116-140
117. Papagno C., Della Sala S., and Basso A. Ideomotor apraxia without aphasia and aphasia without apraxia: the anatomical support for a double dissociation. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 56 (1993) 286-289
118. Parakh R., Roy E., Koo E., and Black S. Pantomime and imitation of limb gestures in relation to the severity of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Cogn. 55 (2004) 272-274
119. Peigneux P., Van der Linden M., Garraux G., Laureys S., Degueldre C., Aerts J., Del Fiore G., Moonen G., Luxen A., and Salmon E. Imaging a cognitive model of apraxia: the neural substrate of gesture-specific cognitive processes. Hum. Brain Mapp. 21 (2004) 119-142
120. Peigneux P., Salmon E., Van der Linden M., Garraux G., Aerts J., Delfiore G., Deguel-dre C., Luxen A., Orban G., and Franck G. The role of lateral occipi-totemporal junction and area MT/V5 in the visual analysis of upper-limb postures. Neuroimage 11 (2000) 644-655
121. Petreska, B. and Billard, A.G. (2006) A neurocomputational model of an imitation deficit following brain lesion, in Proceedings of 16th International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks (ICANN 2006). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, LNCS 4131: 770-779.
122. Platt M.L., and Glimcher P.W. Response fields of intraparietal neurons quantified with multiple saccadic targets. Exp. Brain Res. 121 (1998) 65-75
123. Platz T., and Mauritz K.-H. Human motor planning, motor programming, and use of new task-relevant information with different apraxic syndromes. Eur. J. Neurosci. 7 (1995) 1536-1547
124. Poeck K. Ideational apraxia. J. Neurol. 230 (1983) 1-5
125. Poizner H., Clark M.A., Merians A.S., Macauley B., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Joint coordination deficits in limb apraxia. Brain 118 (1995) 227-242
126. Poizner H., Mack L., Verfaellie M., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Three-dimensional computergraphic analysis of apraxia. Neural representations of learned movement. Brain 113 1 (1990) 85-101
127. Poizner H., Merians A.S., Clark M.A., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Kinematic approaches to the study of apraxic disorders. In: Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. (Eds). Apraxia: The neuropsychology of Action (1997), Psychology Press, Hove, UK 93-109
128. Pramstaller P.P., and Marsden C.D. The basal ganglia and apraxia. Brain 119 (1996) 319-340
129. Raos V., Umiltá M.-A., Gallese V., and Fogassi L. Functional properties of grasping-related neurons in the dorsal premotor area F2 of the macaque monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 92 (2004) 1990-2002
130. Rapcsak S.Z., Ochipa C., Anderson K.C., and Poizner H. Progressive ideomotor apraxia: evidence for a selective impairment of the action production system. Brain Cogn. 27 (1995) 213-236
131. Raymer A.M., Maher L.M., Foundas A.L., Heilman K.M., and Rothi L.J.G. The significance of body part as tool errors in limb apraxia. Brain Cogn. 34 (1997) 287-292
132. Raymer A.M., Merians A.S., Adair J.C., Schwartz R.L., Williamson D.J.G., Rothi L.J.G., Poizner H., and Heilman K.M. Crossed apraxia: Implications for handedness. Cortex 35 2 (1999) 183-199
133. Rizzolatti G., and Arbib M.A. Language within our grasp. Trends Neurosci. 21 5 (1998) 188-194
134. Rizzolatti G., and Craighero L. The mirror-neuron system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27 (2004) 169-192
135. Rizzolatti G., Fogassi L., and Gallese V. Motor and cognitive functions of the ventral premotor cortex. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 12 (2002) 149-154
136. Rizzolatti G., and Luppino G. The cortical motor system. Neuron 31 (2001) 889-901
137. Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Acquisition and retention of gestures by apraxic patients. Brain Cogn. 3 4 (1984) 426-437
138. Rothi L.J.G., Ochipa C., and Heilman K.M. A cognitive neuropsychological model of limb praxis. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 8 6 (1991) 443-458
139. Rothi L.J.G., Ochipa C., and Heilman K.M. A cognitive neuropsychological model of limb praxis and apraxia. In: Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. (Eds). Apraxia: The neuropsychology of Action (1997), Psychology Press, Hove, UK 29-49
140. Roy E.A., Black S.E., Winchester T.R., and Barbour K.L. Gestural imitation following stroke. Brain Cogn. 30 3 (1992) 343-346
141. Roy E.A., Heath M., Westwood D., Schweizer T.A., Dixon M.J., Black S.E., Kalbfleisch L., Barbour K., and Square P.A. Task demands and limb apraxia in stroke. Brain Cogn. 44 (2000) 253-279
142. Roy, E.A., Square, P.A. (1985) Common considerations in the study of limb, verbal and oral apraxia. In: Roy, E.A. (Ed.), Neuropsychological Studies of Apraxia and Related Disorders. North-Holland, Amsterdam, Series Advances in Psychology, Vol. 23, pp. 111-161.
143. Ruby P., Sirigu A., and Decety J. Distinct areas in parietal cortex involved in long-term and short-term action planning: a PET investigation. Cortex 38 (2002) 321-339
144. Rumiati R.I., Weiss P.H., Shallice T., Ottoboni G., Noth J., Zilles K., and Fink G.R. Neural basis of pantomiming the use of visually presented objects. Neuroimage 21 4 (2004) 1224-1231
145. Salter J.E., Roy E.A., Black S.E., Joshi A., and Almeida Q.J. Gestural imitation and limb apraxia in corticobasal degeneration. Brain Cogn. 55 2 (2004) 400-402
146. Sauser E.L., and Billard A.G. Parallel and distributed neural models of the ideomotor principle: an investigation of imitative cortical pathways. Neural Netw. 19 3 (2006) 285-298
147. Schaal S., and Schweighofer N. Computational motor control in humans and robots. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6 (2005) 675-682
148. Schnider A., Hanlon R.E., Alexander D.N., and Benson D.F. Ideomotor apraxia: behavioral dimensions and neuroanatomical basis. Brain Lang. 57 (1997) 125-136
149. Scholz J.P., and Schöner G. The uncontrolled manifold concept: identifying control variables for a functional task. Exp. Brain Res. 126 3 (1999) 289-306
150. Scott S.H., Sergio L.E., and Kalaska J.F. Reaching movements with similar handpaths but different arm orientations. II. Activity of individual cells in dorsal premotor cortex and parietal area 5. J. Neurophysiol. 78 (1997) 2413-2416
151. Sereno M.I., and Tootell R.B. From monkeys to humans: what do we now know about brain homologies?. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 15 2 (2005) 135-144
152. Simon O., Mangin J.-F., Cohen L., Le Bihan D., and Dehaene S. Topographical layout of hand, eye, calculation, and language-related areas in the human parietal lobe. Neuron 33 3 (2002) 475-487
153. Sirigu A., Daprati E., Pradat-Diehl P., Franck N., and Jeannerod M. Perception of self-generated movement following left parietal lesion. Brain 122 (1999) 1867-1874
154. Todorov E., and Jordan M.I. Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination. Nat. Neurosci. 5 11 (2002) 1226-1235
155. Uno Y., Kawato M., and Suzuki R. Formation and control of optimal trajectory in human multijoint arm movement. Minimum torque-change model. Biol. Cybern. 61 (1989) 89-101
156. Vindras P., Desmurget M., and Viviani P. Error parsing in visuomotor pointing reveals independent processing of amplitude and direction. J. Neurophysiol. 94 (2005) 1212-1224
157. Watson R.T., Fleet W.S., Rothi L.J.G., and Heilman K.M. Apraxia and the supplementary motor area. Arch. Neurol. 43 8 (1986) 787-792
158. Watson R.T., and Heilman K.M. Callosal apraxia. Brain 106 (1983) 391-403
159. Weiss P.H., Dohle C., Binkofski F., Schnitzler A., Freund H.-J., and Hefter H. Motor impairment in patients with parietal lesions: disturbances of meaningless arm movement sequences. Neuropsychologia 39 (2001) 397-405
160. Wise S.P., Boussaoud D., Johnson P.B., and Caminiti R. Premotor and parietal cortex: corticocortical connectivity and combinatorial computations. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 20 (1997) 25-42
161. Wolpert D.M., and Ghahramani Z. Computational principles of movement neuroscience. Nat. Neurosci. 3 (2000) 1212-1217
162. Wolpert D.M., Ghahramani Z., and Flanagan J.R. Perspectives and problems in motor learning. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5 11 (2001) 487-494