Confronting terrorisms: Group motivation and successful state policies

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 331-350

  Miller, Gregory D ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

^b Summer Workshop on Teaching about Terrorism ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Coercion; Conciliation; Counterterrorism; Reputation

Indexed keywords

EID: 34547312338     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: 15561836     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550701424059     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. William O'Brien, "Counterterrorism: Lessons from Israel," Strategic Review 13, no. 4 (Fall 1985): 32-44;
2. Paul Johnson, "The Cancer of Terrorism," in Benjamin Netanyahu, ed., Terrorism: How the West Can Win (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1986);
3. L. Paul Bremer, "The West's Counter-Terrorist Strategy," Terrorism and Political Violence 4, no. 4 (Winter 1992): 255-262;
4. Caleb Carr, "Terrorism as Warfare: The Lessons of Military History," World Policy Journal 13, no. 4 (Winter 1996/97): 1-12;
5. William Betts, "The Soft Underbelly of American Primacy," Political Science Quarterly 117, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 33.
6. Ruud Koopmans, "The Dynamics of Protest Waves: West Germany, 1965 to 1989," American Sociological Review 58, no. 5 (Oct. 1993): 637-658;
7. David Charters, ed., The Deadly Sin of Terrorism: Its Effect on Democracy and Civil Liberty in Six Countries (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994);
8. Peter Sederberg, "Conciliation as Counter-Terrorist Strategy," Journal of Peace Research 32, no. 3 (Aug. 1995): 295-311;
9. Jeremy Ginges, "Deterring the Terrorist: A Psychological Evaluation of Different Strategies for Deterring Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence 9, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 170-185;
10. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press 1998);
11. Philip Heymann, Terrorism in America: A Commonsense Strategy for a Democratic Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).
12. Robert Moss, Urban Guerrillas (London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1972);
13. Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State (Houndmills, England: Macmillan, 1986);
14. Mark Lichbach, "Deterrence or Escalation: The Puzzle of Aggregate Studies of Repression and Dissent," Journal of Conflict Resolution 31, no. 2 (June 1987): 266-297.
15. Some scholars have already posed this question, specifically with respect to how democratic states can deal with terrorism while maintaining civil liberties. See for example, Paul Wilkinson, Political Terrorism (London: Macmillan, 1974), 136-143;
16. Wilkinson (see note 3 above); Ronald Crelinsten, "Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats," Terrorism and Political Violence 1, no. 2 (April 1989): 242-269;
17. Ronald Crelinsten and Alex Schmid, "Western Responses to Terrorism: A Twenty-Five Year Balance Sheet," Terrorism and Political Violence 4, no. 4 (1992): 307-340;
18. Peter Chalk, "The Liberal Democratic Response to Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence 7, no. 4 (Winter 1995).
19. Leonard Weinberg and Paul Davis, Introduction to Political Terrorism (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989), 151-192;
20. Paul Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institutions Press, 2001), 73-129;
21. Cindy Combs, Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, 3rd edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), 207-256;
22. Gus Martin, Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), 345-384.
23. Jerrold Post, "Differentiating the Threats of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Motivations and Constraints," Peace and Conflict 8, no. 3 (Sep. 2002): 187-200;
24. Mia Bloom, Dying to Kill (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005);
25. Daniel Byman, "The Logic of Ethnic Terrorism," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 21, no. 2 (April-June 1998): 149-169.
26. Christopher Hewitt, The Effectiveness of Anti-Terrorist Policies (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984).
27. Many of the works already cited fall into this trap. Another example is Walter Enders and Todd Sandier, The Political Economy of Terrorism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 85-92.
28. William O'Brien, "Israel's Counterterror Strategies, 1967-1987," Middle East Review 20 (Fall 1987): 23-30;
29. Reuben Miller, "Responding to Terrorism's Challenge: The Case of Israeli Reprisals," Virginia Social Science Journal 25 (1990): 109-123.
30. L. Paul Bremer, "The West's Counter-Terrorist Strategy," Terrorism and Political Violence 4, no. 4 (Winter 1992): 258;
31. Henry Prunckun and Philip Mohr, "Military Deterrence of International Terrorism: An Evaluation of Operation El Dorado Canyon," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 20, no. 3 (Sep. 1997): 267-280.
32. Hewitt (see note 7 above), 54; Paul Wilkinson, "Politics, Diplomacy and Peace Processes: Pathways Out of Terrorism?" Terrorism and Political Violence 11, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 66-82.
33. Sergio D'Oliviera, "Uruguay and the Tupamaros Myth," Military Review 53, no. 4 (April 1973): 25-36;
34. Arturo Porzecanski, Uruguay's Tupamaros (New York: Praeger, 1973);
35. Richard Gillespie, Soldiers of Peron (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982); Hewitt (see note 7 above), 93.
36. See note 2 above.
37. Ginges (see note 2 above).
38. There are instances when Israel did negotiate, so this might not be a perfect case. One example is the January 2004 prisoner exchange with Hizballah. Ian Fisher, "Hezbollah Hails Trading Of Prisoners," New York Times (Jan. 26, 2004) A:8;
39. Ian Fisher and Greg Myre, "Israel and Hezbollah Trade Prisoners and War Dead in Flights to and From Germany," New York Times (Jan. 30, 2004) A:6.
40. This omission is common among examinations of counterterrorism, but is appropriate only for analysts focusing on one type of terrorism: George Kassimeris, Europe's Last Red Terrorists: The Revolutionary Organization 17 November (New York: New York University Press, 2001);
41. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence, 3rd edition (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003). However, this narrow focus is problematic when attempting to prescribe general rules for state counterterrorist policies.
42. Alex Schmid, Political Terrorism: A Research Guide to Concepts, Theories, Data Bases, and Literature (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1983), 70-111;
43. Alex Schmid and Albert Jongman, Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories and Literature (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1988), 1-38.
44. Governments sometimes use terror against other states or their own populations. However, such cases are outside the scope of this article, which focuses on how states can deal with terrorist groups.
45. For a similar typology, see Paul Wilkinson, "Why Modern Terrorism? Differentiating Types and Distinguishing Ideological Motivations," in Charles Kegley, Jr., ed., The New Global Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), 106-138.
46. Others who use these terms either individually or in some combination include: Jerrold Post, "Terrorist Psycho-logic," in Walter Reich, ed., Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1990), 25-40;
47. Martin (see note 5 above), chapters 5-8; Martha Crenshaw, Terrorism in Context (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1995);
48. Walter Laqueur, The Age of Terrorism (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1987) chapters 6-7.
49. Anarchist groups are also included in this category: Randy Borum and Chuck Tilby, "Anarchist Direct Actions: A Challenge for Law Enforcement," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28, no. 3 (May-June 2005): 201-223.
50. Rachel Monaghan, "Single-Issue Terrorism: A Neglected Phenomenon?" Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 23, no. 4 (Oct. 2000): 255-265;
51. Combs (see note 5 above), 64-66;
52. Brigitte Nacos, Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Understanding Threats and Responses in the Post-9/11 World (New York: Penguin Academics, 2006), 74-79.
53. For a similar argument, see Juergensmeyer (see note 16 above).
54. Available at 〈http://www.eelamweb.com/publications/justice/armed. shtml〉, accessed March 4, 2005.
55. Available at 〈http://www.awb.co.za/ontstaans_e.htm〉, accessed March 4, 2005.
56. As suggested at 〈http://stormfront.org/〉 and 〈http://www.natall.com〉, accessed November 1, 2004.
57. Available at: 〈http://tkb.org/Home.jsp〉.
58. Department of State, Country Reports on Terrorism 2005 (April 2006), 183-262, italics added.
59. Edward Mickolus, Transnational Terrorism: A Chronology of Events, 1968-1979 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980);
60. Edward Mickolus, Todd Sandier, and Jean Murdock, International Terrorism in the 1980s: A Chronology of Events (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1989).
61. Jan Oskar Engene, Terrorism in Western Europe: Explaining the Trends since 1950 (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 2004).
62. The University of Maryland's Global Terrorism Database appears promising because it covers domestic and international acts from 1970 to 1997, but based on currently available information it may cover political violence generally, rather than just terrorism.
63. Jeremy Varon, Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground, the Red Army Faction, and Revolutionary Violence in the Sixties and Seventies (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004), 10, 13, 172-192, and 291.
64. Martha Crenshaw Hutchinson, Revolutionary Terrorism: The FLN in Algeria, 1954-1962 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1978);
65. Michael Wieviorka, "French Politics and Strategy on Terrorism," in Barry Rubin, ed., The Politics of Counterterrorism: The Ordeal of Democratic States (Washington, DC: Foreign Policy Institute, 1990), 61-90;
66. Martha Crenshaw, "The Effectiveness of Terrorism in the Algerian War," in Crenshaw (see note 19 above), 473-513.
67. Jeffrey Ian Ross, "Attributes of Domestic Political Terrorism in Canada, 1960-1985," Terrorism 11, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 213-233;
68. Ronald Crelinsten, "The Internal Dynamics of the FLQ during the October Crisis of 1970," in David Rapoport, ed., Inside Terrorist Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 59-89.
69. Jeffrey Ian Ross, "The Rise and Fall of Quebecois Separatist Terrorism: A Qualitative Application of Factors from Two Models," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 18, no. 4 (July 1995): 285-297.
70. E. Maxon-Browne, "Terrorism in Northern Ireland: The Case of the Provisional IRA," in Juliet Lodge, ed., Terrorism: A Challenge to the State (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), 146-163;
71. Robert Clark, The Basque Insurgents: ETA, 1952-1980 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984);
72. Robert Clark, "Patterns of ETA Violence: 1968-1980," in Peter Merkl, ed., Political Violence and Terror (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986), 123-142;
73. Robert Clark, "Negotiating with Insurgents: Obstacles to Peace in the Basque Country," Terrorism and Political Violence 2, no. 4 (1990): 489;
74. Robert Clark, Negotiating with ETA: Obstacles to Peace in the Basque Country, 1975-1988 (Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press, 1990);
75. Charles Townshend, "The Culture of Paramilitarism in Ireland," in Crenshaw (see note 19 above), 311-351 ;
76. Goldie Shabad and Francisco J. L. Reno, "Political Violence in a Democratic State: Basque Terrorism in Spain," in Crenshaw (see note 19 above), 410-469;
77. James Dingley, "Peace Processes and Northern Ireland: Squaring Circles?" Terrorism and Political Violence 11, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 32-52.
78. Hewitt (see note 7 above), 88.
79. This is consistent with Ethan Bueno de Mesquita's finding that the states most effective at dealing with terrorism used a combination of conciliation and what he refers to as counter-terrorism, which means both legal reform and restriction as defined here. It is also noteworthy that his "successful cases" involved only national-separatist groups. Ethan Bueno de Mesquita, "Conciliation, Counterterrorism, and Patterns of Terrorist Violence," International Organization 59, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 145-176.
80. David Rapoport, "The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism," in Audrey Kurth Cronin and James Ludes, eds., Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004), 46-73.
81. Paul Furlong, "Political Terrorism in Italy: Responses, Reactions and Immobilism," in Lodge (see note 35 above), 57-90;
82. Robert Evans, "Terrorism and Subversion of the State: Italian Legal Responses," Terrorism and Political Violence 1, no. 3 (July 1989): 324-352;
83. Kimber Schraub, "The Rise and Fall of the Red Brigades," in Rubin (see note 32 above), 137-162; Donatella della Porta, "Left-Wing Terrorism in Italy," in Crenshaw (see note 19 above), 105-159.
84. Franco Ferracuti, "Ideology and Repentance: Terrorism in Italy," in Reich (see note 19 above), 59-64. Ginges also cites this case as a success for the Italian government; Ginges (see note 2 above).
85. Mickolus, Sandler, and Murdock (see note 28 above).
86. Hans Josef Horchem, "Terrorism and Government Response: The German Experience," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 4, no. 3 (Summer 1980): 43-55;
87. Konrad Kellen, "Ideology and Rebellion: Terrorism in West Germany," in Reich (see note 19 above), 43-58;
88. Peter Merkl, "West German Left-Wing Terrorism," in Crenshaw (see note 19 above), 160-210.
89. Geoffrey Pridham, "Terrorism and the State in West Germany During the 1970s: A Threat to Stability or a Case of Political Overreaction," in Lodge (see note 35 above), 11-56;
90. Varon (see note 31 above), 254-289.
91. Kassimeris (see note 16 above), 174.
92. Tally Kritzman, "Greek Counter Terrorism: Have the Lessons been Learned," International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism (Aug. 8, 2000).
93. David Scott Palmer, "The Revolutionary Terrorism of Peru's Shining Path," in Crenshaw (see note 19 above), 249-308; James Rochlin, Vanguard Revolutionaries in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003), chapters 2-3.
94. Cynthia McClintock, Revolutionary Movements in Latin America (U.S. Institute of Peace Press, 1998), 91 and 140;
95. Lewis Taylor, Shining Path (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2006), 212 and 239.
96. James Rochlin, Vanguard Revolutionaries in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003), chapters 4-5;
97. Stephen Davis, Apartheid's Rebels (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 1987), 158-202.
98. Ehud Sprinzak, "The Psychopolitical Formation of Extreme Left Terrorism in a Democracy: The Case of the Weathermen," in Reich (see note 19 above), 65-85.
99. Morris Dees, Gathering Storm: America's Militia Threat (New York: Perennial, 1997);
100. David Neiwert, In God's Country (Pullman, WA: Washington State University Press, 1999).
101. Southern Poverty Law Center, "The Rise and Decline of the 'Patriots'," Intelligence Report 102 (Summer 2001).
102. Southern Poverty Law Center, Intelligence Project History: 〈http://www.splcenter.-org/intel/history.jsp〉.
103. Justin Pearce, "Profile: Eugene Terreblanche," BBC News Online (June, 11 2004).
104. Ian Wood, Crimes of Loyalty (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006).
105. Robert Angel, "Japanese Terrorists and Japanese Countermeasures, " in Rubin (see note 32 above), 53-55.
106. Ian Reader, Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2000);
107. David Kaplan, The Cult at the End of the World: The Terrifying Story of the Aum Doomsday Cult, from the Subways of Tokyo to the Nuclear Arsenals of Russia (New York: Crown Press, 1996).
108. Andrew Marshall, "It gassed the Tokyo Subway, microwaved its enemies and tortured its members, so why is the Aum cult thriving?" The Guardian (July, 15 1999).
109. From the group's website: 〈http://english.aleph.to/pr/01.html〈.
110. This refers to Al Qaeda as a group in the pre-9/11 sense, though it has mutated into a network since then.
111. Jeffrey Nedoroscik, "Extremist Groups in Egypt," Terrorism and Political Violence 14, no. 2 (Summer 2002): 47-76.
112. Anthony Smith, "The Politics of Negotiating the Terrorist Problem in Indonesia," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28, no. 1 (Jan/Feb 2005): 33-44.
113. Testimony of James Jarboe, Federal Bureau of Investigation, before U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Forests and Forest Health (February 12, 2002), cited in Stefan Leader and Peter Probst, "The Earth Liberation Front and Environmental Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence 15, no. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 2003): 37-58.