"Do whites have rights?": White detroit policemen and "reverse discrimination" protests in the 1970s

Journal of American History

Volumn 91, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 932-960

  Deslippe, Dennis A ^a  

^a MARSHALL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 37949027652     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3662861     Document Type: Article

References (240)

1. Detroit News. May 10, 1975, p. Al.
2. Ibid.; New York Times, May 15, 1975, p. 27.
3. Detroit News, May 11, 1975, p. A3;
4. Detroit News, ibid., May 13, 1975, p. A4;
5. Tuebor, June 1975, p. 1 (Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich.).
6. Norman C. Amaker, Civil Rights and the Reagan Administration (Washington, 1988), 125-26;
7. Raymond Wolter, Right Turn: William Bradford Reynolds, the Reagan Administration, and Black Civil Rights (New Brunswick, 1996), 208-9;
8. Thomas Byrne Edsall with Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1992), 123.
9. On working-class conservatism and white male workers' resistance to liberalism, see, for example, Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History, 43 (Aug. 2002), 257-83;
10. Nancy Maclean, "The Hidden History of Affirmative Action: Working Women's Struggles in the 1970s and the Gender of Class," Feminist Studies, 25 (Spring 1999), 42-79;
11. Dennis A. Deslippe, "Rights, Not Roses": Unions and the Rise of Working-Class Feminism (Urbana, 2000);
12. Kenneth D. Durr, Behind the Backlash: White Working-Class Politics in Baltimore, 1940-1980 (Chapel Hill, 2003);
13. Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill, 1991);
14. Maria Kefalas, Working-Class Heroes: Protecting Home, Community, and Nation in a Chicago Neighborhood(Berkeley, 2003);
15. and Joshua B. Freeman, Working-Class New York: Life and Labor since World War II (New York, 2000), 228-55.
16. For recent works on affirmative action by historians, or with a historical perspective, see John David Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago, 1996);
17. John D. Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 2002);
18. John David Skrentny, ed., Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Civil Rights Options for America (Chicago, 2001);
19. Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence, 1996);
20. Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960-1972 (New York, 1990);
21. Paul D. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933-1972 (Baton Rogue, 1997);
22. and Melvin I. Urofsky, Affirmative Action on Trial: Sex Discrimination in Johnson v. Santa Clara (Lawrence, 1997).
23. Bruce Nelson, Divided We Stand: American Workers and the Struggle for Black Equality (Princeton, 2001), 254;
24. Vron Ware, "Otherwordly Knowledge: Toward a 'Language of Perspicuous Contrast,'" in Out of Whiteness: Color, Politics, and Culture, by Vron Ware and Les Back (Chicago, 2002), 19.
25. For recent critiques of "whiteness studies," see Eric Arnesen et al., "Whiteness and the Historians' Imagination," International Labor and Working-Class History, 60 (Fall 2001), 3-92;
26. and Peter Kolchin, "Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America," Journal of American History, 89 (June 2002), 154-73. The best-known historian of "whiteness" is David Roediger.
27. See David Roediger, Colored White: Transcending the Racial Past (Berkeley, 2002).
28. Robert M. Collins, More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America (New York, 2000), 132-65;
29. James Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (New York, 1996), 790;
30. New York Times, Nov. 10, 1974, sec. 3, p. 1;
31. New York Times, ibid., Jan. 5, 1975, sec. 3, p. 30;
32. New York Times, ibid., Jan. 29, 1975, p. 17;
33. McDonald v. Santa Fe Trail Transportation Company, 427 U.S. 273 (1976);
34. Barbara Lindeman Schlei and Paul Grossman, Employment Discrimination Law (1976; Chicago, 1983), 775.
35. Catherine H. Milton, "The Future of Women in Policing," in The Future of Policing, ed. Alvin W. Cohn (Beverly Hills, 1978), 186;
36. W. Marvin Dulaney, Black Police in America (Bloomington, 1996), 102, 122;
37. James B. Jacobs and Jay Cohen, "The Impact of Racial Integration on Police," Journal of Police Science and Administration, 6 (1978), 169, 175;
38. Stephen Leinen, Black Police, White Society (New York, 1984), 22-33;
39. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate and Unequal (New York, 1992), 121.
40. Relevant cases include Baker v. City of St. Petersburg, 400 F.2d 294 (5th Cir. 1968);
41. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Allen, 340 F. Supp. 703 (M.D. Ala. 1972);
42. Bridgeport Guardians, Inc. v. Bridgeport Civil Service Commission, 497 F.2d 1113 (2nd Cir. 1974);
43. Arnold v. Ballard, 390 F. Supp. 723 (N.D. Ohio 1975);
44. Afro-American Patrolmen's League v. Duck, 538 F.2d 328 (N.D. Ohio 1976);
45. United States v. City of Chicago, 411 F. Supp. 218 (N.D. Ill. 1976);
46. and Shield Club v. City of Cleveland, 538 F.2d 329 (N.D. Ohio 1976).
47. Andrew Todd Darien, "Patrolling the Borders: Integration, Identity, and Patrol Work in the New York City Police Department, 1941-1975" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2000); Michael G. Krzewinski, "The Historical Development and Effects of Affirmative Action on the City of Milwaukee Police Department" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 2000); John H. McNamara, "Uncertainties in Police Work: The Relevance of Police Recruits' Backgrounds and Training," in The Police: Six Sociologkal Essays, ed. David J. Bordua (New York, 1967), 193;
48. Nicholas Alex, New York Cops Talk Back: A Study of a Beleaguered Minority (New York, 1976), 13-20;
49. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Why Cops Hate Liberals-And Vice Versa," in The Police Rebellion: A Quest for Blue Power, ed. William J. Bopp (Springfield, 1971), 38;
50. Arthur Niederhoffer, Behind the Shield: The Police in Urban Society (Garden City, 1967).
51. For examples of police "reverse discrimination" cases, see Fraternal Order of Police v. City of Dayton, 310 N.E.2d 269 (Ohio Ct. App. 1973);
52. Button v. Rockefeller, 351 N.Y.S.2d 488 (1973);
53. Oburn v. Shapp, 521 F.2d 142 (3rd Cir. 1975);
54. and Reeves v. Eaves, 411 F. Supp. 531 (N.D. Ga. 1976).
55. Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Identity in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), 143;
56. Sidney Fine, Violence in the Model City: The Cavanaitgh Administration, Race Relations, and the Detroit Riot of 1967 (Ann Arbor, 1989), 458;
57. Jon C. Teaford, The Twentieth-Century American City: Problem, Promise, and Reality (Baltimore, 1993), 126.
58. On race relations in Detroit after World War II, see Joe T. Darden et al., Detroit: Race and Uneven Development (Philadelphia, 1989);
59. Mary M. Stolberg, Bridging the River of Hatred: The Pioneering Efforts of Detroit Police Commissioner George Edwards (Detroit, 1998);
60. June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore, 1997);
61. and Heather Ann Thompson, Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City (Ithaca, 2001).
62. Testimony of Arthur L. Johnson, Hearings before the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings Held in Detroit, Michigan, Dec. 14-15, 1960 (Washington, 1961), 307; Patrick James Ashton, "Race, Class, and Black Politics: The Implications of the Election of a Black Mayor for the Police and Policing in Detroit" (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1981), 240-41.
63. Pamela Irving Jackson, Minority Group Threat, Crime, and Policing: Social Context and Social Control (New York, 1989), 32-33, 72-75;
64. Dulaney, Black Police in America, 20-21, 26;
65. Susan E. Martin, "'Outsider Within the Station House: The Impact of Race and Gender on Black Women Police," Social Problems, 41 (Aug. 1994), 338;
66. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Police and the Blacks: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Hearings (New York, 1971);
67. Staff Report: Detroit Commission on Community Relations, "A Synopsis of Background, Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations of A Study of Detroit Police Department Personnel Selection Practices," typescript, Jan. 15, 1962, folder 4, box 1, Tom Turner Collection (Reuther Library); Sub-Committee on Police-Community Relations, Citizens Committee for Equal Opportunity, "The Police, Law Enforcement and the Detroit Community, Summer 1965: A Report to the People of Detroit," typescript, Aug. 1965, ibid.; Thomas F. Pettigrew, Racially Separate or Together? (New York, 1971), 9;
68. William J. Bopp, "The Detroit Riot," in Police Rebellion, ed. Bopp, 162-72;
69. Wilbur C. Rich, Coleman Young and Detroit Politics: From Social Activist to Power Broker (Detroit, 1989), 207-8.
70. Formisano, Boston against Busing, 3;
71. Tuebor, Nov. 1974, p. 30;
72. John L. Cooper, The Police and the Ghetto (Port Washington, 1980), 95;
73. Tuebor, Feb. 1975, p. 8;
74. Tuebor, ibid., June 1975, p. 18;
75. Tuebor, ibid., Dec. 1974, p. 29.
76. On the role of moderate Republicans in formulating affirmative action policy, see Dean J. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics, Principles, and Policy (Cambridge, Mass., 2002);
77. Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York, 1994), 90-94;
78. Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution, 144-64;
79. and Graham, Civil Rights Era, 322-45.
80. Ashton, "Race, Class, and Black Politics," 268-69; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 266;
81. Eugene Eiden-burg and Joe Rigent, "The Police and Politics," in Police in Urban Society, ed. Harland Hahn (Beverly Hills, 1971), 291, 296.
82. Thompson, Whose Detroit?, 196-97;
83. Ashton, "Race, Class, and Black Politics," 310-11, 319, 417-19, 426n15; Detroit Free Press, July 30, 1983, p. A3;
84. Jeffrey S. Adler, "Introduction," in African-American Mayors: Race, Politics, and the American City, ed. David R. Colburn and Jeffrey S. Adler (Urbana, 2001), 12;
85. Schaefer v. Tannian, 394 F. Supp. 1128 (E.D. Mich. 1974).
86. Remer Tyson, "Detroit Hangs in There: Mayor Young a Year Later," Nation, March 1, 1975, p. 237;
87. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 270;
88. Thomas, Redevelopment and Race, 157;
89. Formisano, Boston against Busing, 12, 223;
90. Milliken v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 717 (1974);
91. Patterson, Grand Expectations, 734;
92. New York Times, Jan. 22, 1975, p. 17.
93. Coleman Young and Lonnie Wheeler, Hard Stuff: The Autobiography of Coleman Young (New York, 1994), 210, 212-13;
94. Rich, Coleman Young and Detroit Politics, 209-12;
95. Thompson, Whose Detroit?, 236-39.
96. The only issues of the Tuebor held by the Reuther Library are those for 1974-1975, Tuebor, April 1975, p. 4;
97. Tuebor, ibid., Nov. 1974, pp. 7, 19, 32;
98. Tuebor, ibid., Aug. 1975, p. 22;
99. Tuebor, ibid., June 1975, p. 13.
100. Tuebor, Ibid., Oct. 1974, p. 24;
101. Tuebor, ibid., July 1975, p. 9;
102. Tuebor, ibid, Aug. 1975, p. 7.
103. Eva Schlesinger Buzawa, "The Role of Selected Factors upon Patrol Officer Job Satisfaction in Two Urban Police Departments" (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1979), 53n2; Darien, "Patrolling the Borders," 366; Anthony V. Bouza, The Police Mystique: An Insider's Look at Cops, Crime, and the Criminal Justice System (New York, 1990), 142.
104. In the 1970s West Virginia coal miners' wives threatened to form a picket line when women went to work in the mines for the first time. Mary Margaret Fonow, Union Women: Forging Feminism in the United Steelworkers of America (Minneapolis, 2003), 77.
105. Reiss, Police and the Public, 36, 44-45;
106. Tuebor, Oct. 1975, p. 5.
107. Tuebor, March 1975, p. 11;
108. Martin, "'Outsider Within' the Station House," 395; Rich, Coleman Young and Detroit Politics, 215;
109. Detroit News, Aug. 1, 1974, p. Al;
110. Detroit Free Press, June 2, 1984, p. A3;
111. Detroit News, Sept. 14, 1980, p. Al;
112. Detroit News, ibid., Sept. 9, 1980, p. B2;
113. Detroit News, ibid., Sept. 4, 1980, p. Al;
114. Detroit News, ibid., April 25, 1980, p. B3.
115. Women industrial unionists united across racial lines on many occasions. See Deslippe, "Rights, Not Roses," 130-34, 143, 165;
116. Fonow, Union Women, 56-63, 95-103, 172;
117. Nancy F. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990), 158-59;
118. and Dorothy Sue Cobble, The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, 2003), 43-44, 202-3, 244n96.
119. Tuebor, July 1975, p. 2;
120. Tuebor, ibid., April 1975, p. 3.
121. Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn against Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 111;
122. Reiss, Police and Public, 29;
123. Tuebor, Dec. 1974, p. 42;
124. Detroit News, Dec. 28, 1975, p. Al;
125. Detroit News, ibid., Aug. 13, 1977, p. Al.
126. Michele Lamont, The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration (New York, 2000), 2-3, 51, 56-57, 66;
127. Tuebor, Oct. 1974, p. 42;
128. ibid., July 1975, p. 16;
129. Alex, New York Cops Talk Back, 37.
130. Frank Murphy was the Democratic mayor of Detroit, 1930-1933, and a U.S. Supreme Court justice. Detroit News, Dec. 28, 1975. p. Al;
131. Leonard N. Moore, Carl B. Stokes and the Rise of Black Political Power (Urbana, 2002), 116-20;
132. Tuebor, April 1975, pp. 16, 38;
133. Ashton, "Race, Class, and Black Politics," 331-32; Tue-bor, Jan. 1975, pp. 13, 7;
134. Detroit News, Aug. 19, 1976, p. A3;
135. Tuebor, July 1975, pp. 10, 14;
136. Tuebor, ibid., Aug. 1975, p. 22;
137. Tuebor, ibid., Sept. 1974, p. 28;
138. Detroit News, Aug. 1, 1974, p. Al.
139. Formisano, Boston against Busing, 172, 176, 235;
140. Tuebor, Jan. 1975, p. 22;
141. Tuebor, ibid., June 1975, p. 18;
142. Tuebor, ibid., April 1975, p. 16.
143. Figures from two years later, 1974, show that the lowest-ranking officers made up 72% of the force: there were 3, 622 patrolmen, 1, 114 sergeants, 197 lieutenants, and 70 who ranked as inspectors or higher. "Present Manpower by Rank, June 30, 1974," DPOA V. Young Case Files, 75-71376/74-71838, U.S. District Court, Eastern District of Michigan (Federal Archives Records Center, Chicago, 111.). Detroit Urban League, "Employment Progress of Black Officers in the Detroit Police Department," typescript, Oct. 24, 1972, p. 11 (General Collection, Purdy/Kresge Library, Wayne State University).
144. Detroit News, Aug. 2, 1974, p. A3;
145. Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, 446 F. Supp. 979 (E.D. Mich. 1978). In contract negotiations the Detroit Police Officers Association (DPOA) proposed that the written examination count for 70%, performance evaluation (service ratings) for 7%, seniority for 20%, and veterans' preference for 3%; the city wanted the written exam to count for only 40%, the promotional evaluation (oral boards) for 45% (the DPOA wanted it eliminated), performance evaluation for 7%, college credit for 3%, and veterans' preference for 2%. See "DPOA Promotional Demands," typescript, [Nov. 1977], DPOA v. Young Case Files; "City of Detroit Proposals," typescript, Nov. 21, 1977, ibid.
146. Tuebor, Feb. 1975, p. 14;
147. ibid., Nov. 1974, p. 16;
148. ibid., Sept. 1974, p. 4;
149. Schaefer v. Tannian, 10 Fair Emply. Cas. (BNA) 896 (E.D. Mich. 1974); Ashton, "Race, Class, and Black Politics," 351-55.
150. Tuebor, Dec. 1974, p. 29;
151. testimony of David R. Watroba, Oct. 20, 1977, DPOA V. Young Case Files; closing argument of Sheldon Adler, Dec. 22, 1977, ibid.
152. Detroit News, May 24, 1974, p. 9A;
153. testimony of Bruce Balmas, Oct. 6, 1977, DPOA V. Young Case Files; testimony of Harvey Thomas Harris Jr., Oct. 6, 1977, ibid.; deposition of Erik Beckman, Dec. 14, 1977, ibid.; closing argument of Walter Nussbaum, Dec. 22, 1977, ibid.
154. Reeves v. Eaves, 411 F. Supp. 531 (N.D. Ga. 1976);
155. Commonwealth v. Flaherty, 404 F. Supp. 1022 (W.D. Pa. 1975);
156. Doores v. McNamara, 476 F. Supp. 987 (W.D. Mo. 1979);
157. "Plaintiffs Brief in Support of Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law," Dec. 21, 1977, DPOA V. Young Case Files;
158. Tuebor, Dec. 1974, p. 16;
159. Thomas J. Sugrue, "Breaking Through: The Troubled Origins of Affirmative Action in the Workplace," in Color Lines, ed. Skrentny, .44-45.
160. Detroit News, Aug. 1, 1974, p. Al; Mitchell Skazalski to Douglas Fraser, July 23, 1974, folder 21, box 3, Vice-President, United Automobile Workers, Douglas Fraser Collection (Reuther Library); Evan Marshall to Fraser, July 28, 1974, ibid.
161. Formisano, Boston against Busing, 193;
162. Edsall with Edsall, Chain Reaction, 9, 123;
163. Benjamin J. Wolkinson, Blacks, Unions, and the EEOC: A Study of Administrative Futility (Lexington, Mass., 1973), 13;
164. Rieder, Canarsie, 118;
165. Tuebor, Nov. 1974, p. 27.
166. Detroit News, June 23, 1977, p. Al;
167. deposition of Coleman A. Young, May 24, 1977, DPOA V. Young Case Files.
168. Detroit News, May 1, 1975, p. Al;
169. ibid., May 8, 1975, p. A21.
170. Nelson Lichtenstein, State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (Princeton, 2002), 206. Historians have noted that the goal of family security was central to the defense of seniority.
171. See Nelson Lichtenstein, State of the Union: A Century of American Labor 2002ibid., 61;
172. Carl Gersuny and Gladis Kaufman, "Seniority and the Moral Economy of the U.S. Automobile Workers, 1934-1946," Journal of Social History, 18 (Spring 1985), 463-73;
173. Durr, Behind the Backlash, 184;
174. and David Montgomery and Ronald Schatz, "Facing Layoffs," in Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles, by David Montgomery (New York, 1979), 139-52.
175. "On Seniority," John Herling Labor Letter, Dec. 27, 1975, p. 3;
176. Detroit Mews, May 8, 1975, p. Al;
177. Tony Connole to Fraser, May 12, 1975, folder 18, box 3, Fraser Collection; Detroit News, May 14, 1975, p. Al. National liberal organizations, especially civil rights and feminist organizations, faced off against labor leaders and their allies.
178. See Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy, and the Decline of Liberalism (Chapel Hill, 1998), 184-86; Minutes, Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Executive Committee Meeting, Nov. 21, 1974, box 16, series I, Papers of the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.); William E. Pollard to Ethel Bent Walsh, April 11, 1975, folder 1, box 12, Philip W. Buchen Files (Gerald R. Ford Library, Ann Arbor, Mich.).
179. Detroit News, May 8, 1975, p. D10;
180. Detroit News, ibid., May 1, 1975, p. Al;
181. Detroit News, ibid., May 12, 1975, p. B8;
182. Detroit News, ibid.. May 9, 1975, p. B10;
183. Detroit News, ibid, May 11, 1975, p. G8.
184. Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960-1980 (Chapel Hill, 1999), 112, 139, 201, 233;
185. Deslippe, "Rights, Not Roses," 189-90, 192-94;
186. Fonow, Union Women, 129;
187. "CBTU Replies to Meany," John Herling Labor Letter, Sept. 13, 1975;
188. "Ad Hoc Heating on Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity," typescript, Nov. 11, 1975, folder 27, box 2, Coalition of Black Trade Unionists Collection (Reuther Library); Detroit News, May 25, 1975, p. A4.
189. Sugrue, "Breaking Through," 34; Statement of Tom Turner, President, Metropolitan Detroit AFL-CIO, Police Officers Assoc, (DPOA) Membership Meeting, typescript, May 11, 1976, folder 50, box 56, Turner Collection; Press Release, Tom Turner, President, Metropolitan Detroit AFL-CIO, Feb. 2, 1979, folder 8, box 43, ibid.; Detroit News, May 10, 1979, p. Bl.
190. For the Metropolitan Detroit AFL-CIO'S criticism of Detroit police officers, see clipping, "Citizen's Police Board Backed by Labor Council," Detroit Free Press, Jan. 20, 1961, folder 4, box 1, Turner Collection; Graten Little to Jerome P. Cavanaugh, Dec. 17, 1963, ibid.; and Alex Fuller to Louis C. Miriani, Oct. 6, 1959, ibid. For an example of the labor federation's complaint against civil rights organizations as employers, see Milton Tambar to Urban League, Board of Directors Officer, Jan. 12, 1972, folder 38, box 17, ibid.
191. Tuebor, Oct. 1975, p. 12; Ashton, "Race, Class, and Black Politics," 374n9; John E. Teahan, "A Study of the Values and Attitudes of Black and White Police Officers," typescript, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, 1972 (General Collection, Purdy/Kresge Library).
192. Detroit News, July 30, 1976, p. B3;
193. New York Times, May 15, 1975, p. 27.
194. Detroit News, June 11, 1975, p. Al;
195. Detroit News, ibid., July 31, 1975, p. A6;
196. Detroit News, ibid, Aug. 3, 1975, p. B5;
197. Young and Wheeler, Hard Stuff, 208;
198. Detroit News, June 24, 1976, p. Bl;
199. Detroit News, ibid, June 26, 1976, p. A3;
200. Detroit News, ibid., June 17, 1976, p. Bl.
201. Detroit News, June 15, 1975, p. Al;
202. Thompson, Whose Detroit?, 273n73. The Sixteenth Precinct was 97.7% white in 1970.
203. See "Population Characteristics for Detroit-By Precinct, Profile of Detroit, 1970," tables I and II, typescript, DPOA V. Young Case Files.
204. Buzawa, "Role of Selected Factors upon Patrol Officer Job Satisfaction in Two Urban Police Departments," 115; Detroit News, Aug. 19, 1976, p. A3;
205. Detroit News, ibid, Oct. 11, 1978, p. Bl;
206. Detroit Free Press, Oct. 22, 1986, p. A3.
207. Franks v. Bowman Transportation Company, 424 U.S. 747 (1976);
208. Teamsters v. United States, 431 U.S. 324 (1977);
209. Detroit Free Press, Feb. 23, 1984, p. Al;
210. Detroit Free Press, ibid., Feb. 24, 1984, p. Al;
211. Detroit Free Press, ibid, Nov. 8, 1984, p. Al;
212. Firefighters Local Union No. 1784 v. Stotts, 467 U.S. 561 (1984);
213. Detroit Free Press, June 13, 1984, p. A15.
214. Detroit Police Officers Ass'n. v. Young, 446 F. Supp. 979 (E.D. Mich. 1978), 608 F.2d 671 (6th Cir. 1979), 452 U.S. 938 (1981);
215. Detroit Free Press, Oct. 22, 1983, p. A3;
216. Detroit Free Press, ibid, Jan. 29, 1990, p. A1.
217. Baker v. City of Detroit, 483 F. Supp. 930, 940 (E.D. Mich. 1979);
218. History of the Federal Judiciary, Federal Judges Biographical Database http://air.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf (June 4, 2004).
219. Baker v. City of Detroit, 483 F. Supp. at 980, 994, 996, 1002.
220. Hugh Davis Graham, "Civil Rights Policy," in The Reagan Presidency: Pragmatic Conservatism and Its Legacies, ed. W. Elliot Brownlee and Hugh Davis Graham (Lawrence, 2003), 284-85;
221. Amaker, Civil Rights and the Reagan Administration, 126;
222. Wolter, Right Turn, 208-9;
223. New York Times, Feb. 10, 1985, p. 28;
224. New York Times, ibid., Dec. 5, 1983, p. B13;
225. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Statement of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights concerning the Detroit Police Department's Racial Promotion Quota (Washington, 1984).
226. Stephen Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston, 1995);
227. Lee Cokorinos, The Assault on Diversity: An Organized Challenge to Racial and Gender Justice (Lanham, 2003);
228. San Francisco Police Officers'Association v. San Francisco, 812 E2d 1125 (9th Cir. 1987);
229. Hayes v. North State Law Enforcement Officers Association, 10 E3d 207 (4th Cir. 1993);
230. Quinn v. City of Boston, 325 F.3d 18 (1st Cir. 2003);
231. New York Times, April 9, 2002, p. A21;
232. New York Times, ibid., Aug. 28, 2003, p. A26;
233. "Just the Beginning Foundation: Affirmative Action Panel Discussion," Journal of Law in Society, 1 (Winter 1999), 73.
234. Detroit Police Officers Assn. v. Young, 989 F.2d 330 (6th Cir. 1993);
235. Detroit News, March 25, 1993, p. B1;
236. "Order Approving Proposed Settlement Pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 23(e)," Sept. 20, 1995, DPOA v. Young Case Files.
237. Leinen, Black Police, White Society, 40, 154;
238. Detroit Free Press, Jan. 29, 1990, p. Al;
239. Detroit Free Press, ibid., July 9, 2001, p. A1.
240. Carl T. Rowan, "Keith Ruling on Police More Vital Than Bakke," clipping, Detroit News, Oct. 15, 1979, folder 35, box 114, Turner Collection