Cannabis and Psychosis: What is the Link?

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 131-142

  Amar, Mohamed Ben ^a   Potvin, Stephane ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cannabis; Marijuana; Psychosis; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

CANNABIS;

AGE; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG ABUSE PATTERN; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; HUMAN; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MEDICAL LITERATURE; NEUROBIOLOGY; PSYCHOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYMPTOMATOLOGY;

EID: 34547107338     PISSN: 02791072     EISSN: 21599777     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2007.10399871     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Allebeck, P.; Adamsson, C.; Engstrom A. & Rydberg, U. 1993. Cannabis and schizophrenia: A longitudinal study of cases treated in Stockholm County. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 88: 21-24.
2. Aloe, L.; Lannitelli, A.; Angelucci, F.; Bersani, G. & Fiore, M. 2000. Studies in animal models and humans suggesting a role of nerve growth factor in schizophrenia-like disorders. Behavioral Pharmacology 2: 235-42.
3. Andreasen, N.C. 1987. The diagnosis of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 13: 9-22.
4. Andreasson, S.; Allebeck, P.; Engstrom, A. & Rydberg, U. 1987. Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 2: 1483-5.
5. American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2000. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), Fourth Edition Revised. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
6. Arseneault, L.; Cannon, M.; Witton, J. & Murray, R.M. 2004. Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: Examination of the evidence. British Journal of Psychiatry 184: 110-17.
7. Arseneault, L.; Cannon, M.; Poulton, R.; Murray, R.; Caspi, A. & Moffit, T E. 2002. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: Longitudinal prospective study. British Medical Journal 325: 1212-13.
8. Atakan, Z. 2004. Cannabis and psychosis: How important is the link? Addiction 99: 513-15.
9. Aust, R.; Sharp, C. & Goulden, C. 2002. Prevalence of Drug Use: Key Findings from the 2001/2002 British Crime Survey, Findings 182. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.
10. Bartolucci, G.; Fryer, L.; Perris, C. & Shagass, C. 1969. Marijuana psychosis: A case report. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 14: 77-79.
11. Ben Amar, M. 2004. Pharmacologie du cannabis et synthèse des analyses des principaux comités d’experts. Drogues, Santé et Société 2: 9-60.
12. Ben Amar, M. & Léonard, L. 2002. Chapter 16: Cannabis. In: L. Uon & M. Ben Amar (Eds.) Les Psycho/ropes: Pharmacologie Toxicomanie. Montreal: Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal
13. Berger, N. 2004. Cannabis et schizophrénie. De l'euphorie à la psyche Revue Médicale de Liège 59: 98-103.
14. Berk, M.; Brook, S. & Trandafir, A.I. 1999. A comparison of olanzap with haloperidol in cannabis-induced psychotic disorder double-blind randomized controlled trial. International Clini Psychopharmacology 14: 177-80.
15. Bersani, G.; Orlandi, V; Kotzalidis, G.D. & Pancheri, P. 2002. Canna and schizophrenia: Impact on onset, course, psychopatholc and outcomes. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clini Neuroscience 252: 86-92.
16. Caspi, A.; Moffitt, T.E.; Cannon, M.; McClay, J.; Murray, R.; Harringt H.L.; Taylor, A.; Arsenault, L.; Williams, B.; Brathwaite, A.; Poult R. & Craig, I.W. 2005. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-on cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gi X environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry 57: 11 17-27.
17. Chaudry, H.R.; Moss, H.B.; Bashir, A.; & Suliman, T. 1999. Canna psychosis following bhang ingestion. British Journal of Addict 86:1075-81.
18. Chopra, G.S. & Smith, J.W. 1974. Psychotic reactions following canna use in East Indians. Archives of General Psychiatry 30: 24-27.
19. Compton, M.T.; Furman, A C. & Kaslow, N.J. 2004. Lower negat symptom scores among cannabis-dependent patients w schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: Preliminary evidence from African American first-episode sample. Schizophrenia Resea. 71:61-64.
20. Davey Smith, G. & Phillips, A N.1992. Confounding in epidemiologi studies: Why "independent” effects may not be all they seem. Brit Medical Journal 305: 757-59.
21. Davis, K.L.; Kohn, R.S.; Ko, G. & Davidson, M. 1991. Dopamine in schizophrenia: A review and reconceptualization. American Journal of Psychiatry 148: 1474-86.
22. Dean, B.; S undram, S.; Bradbury, R.; Scarr, E. & Copolov, D. 2001. Studies on H CP-55940 binding in the human central nervous system: regional specific changes in density of cannabinoid-1 receptors associated with schizophrenia and cannabis use. Neuroscience 103: 9-15.
23. Defer, B. 1990. Cannabis and schizophrenia: Is there a causal association? Commentary in advance in the biosciences. Psychopathology of illicit drugs: cannabis, cocaine, opiates. European Journal of Psychiatry 80 31-37.
24. Degenhardt, L. & Hall, W. 2001. The association between psychosis and problematic drug use among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Psychological Medicine 31: 659-68.
25. Degenhardt, L.; Hall, W. & Linskey, M. 2003. Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 71: 37-48.
26. Dervaux, A.; Goldberger, C.; Laqueille, X. & Krebs, M.O. 2004. Cannabis and psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 185: 352-55.
27. Dervaux, A.; Laqueille, X.; Bourdel, M.C.; Le Borgne, M.H.; Olié, J.P.; Loo, H. & Krebs, M.O. 2003. Cannabis et schizophrénie: données cliniques et socio-démographiques. Encephale 29: 11-17.
28. Devane, WA.; Dysark, F. A.; Johnson, M R.; Melvin, L.S. & Howlett, A.C. 1988. Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain. Molecular Pharmacology 34: 605-13.
29. Dixon, L.; Haas, G.; Wedien, P.J.; Sweeney J. & Frances, A.J. 1990. Acute effects of drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: Clinical observations and patients’ self reports. Schizophrenia Bulletin 16: 69-79.
30. D'Souza, D C.; Abi-Saab, W.M.; Madonick, S.; Forselius-Bielen, K.; Doersch, A.; Braley G.; Gueorguieva, R.; Cooper, T.B. & Krystal, J.H. 2005. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: Implications for cognition, psychosis and addiction. Biological Psychiatry 57: 594-608.
31. D’Souza, DC.; Perry, E.; MacDougall, L.; Ammerman, Y.; Cooper, T.; Wu, Y.T.; Guerorguieva, R. & Krystal, J.H. 2004. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: Implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 1558-72.
32. Dumas, P.; Saoud, M.; Bouafia, S.; Gutknecht, C.; Ecochard, R. & Daléry, J. 2002. Cannabis use correlates with schizotypal personality traits in healthy students. Psychiatry Research 109: 27-35.
33. Fergusson, D.M.; Horwood, L.J. & Ridder, E.M. 2005. Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms. Addiction 100: 354-66.
34. Fergusson, D M. 2004. Cannabis and psychosis: Accumulating evidence. Aililiction 99: 1351-52.
35. Fergusson, D.M.; Horwood, L.J. & Swain-Campbell, N.R. 2003. Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychological Medicine 33: 15-21.
36. Ferdinand, R.F.; Sondeijker, F.; van der Ende, J.; Selten, J.P; Huizink, A. & Verhulst, F.C. 2005. Cannabis use predicts future psychotic symptoms, and vice versa. Addiction 5: 612-18.
37. Gardner, E.L. & Lowinson, J.H. 1991. Marijuana’s interaction with brain reward systems: Update. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 40: 571-80.
38. Gcorgotas, A. & Zeidenberg, P. 1979. Observations on the effects of four weeks of heavy marihuana smoking on a group interaction and individual behaviour. Comprehensive Psychiatry 20: 427-32.
39. Giuffrida, A., Leweke, F.M.; Gerth, C.W.; Schreiber, D.; Koethe, D.; Faulhaber, J.; Klosterkotter, J. & Piomelli, D. 2004. Cerebrospinal anandamide levels are elevated in acute schizophrenia and are inversely correlated with psychotic symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 2108-14.
40. Gorriti, M.A.: Rodriguez de Fonseca, F.; Navarro, M.; Palomo, T.1999. Chronic t.9 tetrahydrocannabinol treatment induces sensitization to the psychomotor effects of amphetamine in rats. European Journal of Pharmacology 365: 133-42.
41. Hall, W. & Degenhardt, L. 2000. Cannabis use and psychosis: A review of clinical and epidemiological evidence. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34: 26-34.
42. Hambrecht, M. & Hafner, H. 2000. Cannabis, vulnerability, and the onset of schizophrenia: An epidemiological perspective. Australian and New ZealandJournal of Psychiatry 34: 468-75.
43. Hanak, C.; Tecco, J.; Verbanck, P. & Pelc, I. 2002. Chapter 4: Cannabis, mental health and dependence. Part A. Psychosis. In: I. Spruit (Ed.) Cannabis 2002 Report. A Joint International Effort at the Initiative of the Ministers of Public Health of Belgium, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Switzerland. Technical Report of the International Scientific Conference. Brussels, Belgium, 2/25/2002. Brussels: Ministry of Public Health of Belgium.
44. Henquet, C.; Krabbendam, L.; Spauwen, J.; Kaplan, C.; Lieb, R.; Wittchen, H.U. & van Os, J. 2005. Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. British Medical Journal 330: 11 -5.
45. Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM). 2001. Cannabis. Que/s Effets sur le Comportement el la Santé? Paris: Éditions lnserm.
46. Isbell, H.; Gorodetzsky, C.W.; Jasinski, D.; Claussen, U.; Spulak, F. V.; Karle, F 1967. Effects of A tetrahydrocannabinol in man. Psychopharmacologia II: 184-8.
47. Jablensky, A. 2000. Epidemiology of schizophrenia: The global burden of disease and disability. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 250: 274-85.
48. Jablensky, A.; Sartorius, N.; Ernberg, G.; Anker, M.; Karten, A.; Cooper, J.E.; Day, R. & Bertelsen, A. 1992. Schizophrenia: Manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. Psychological Medicine Monograph Supplement 20.
49. Jockers-Scherlibl, M.C.; Danker-Hopfe, H.; Mahlberg, R.; Selig, F.; Rentzsch, J.; Schiirer, F.; Lang Lang, U.E. & Hellweg, R. 2004. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor serum concentrations in drug-naive schizophrenic patients with chronic cannabis abuse and multiple substance abuse. Neuroscience Letters 371: 79-83.
50. Jockers-ScherUbl, MC.; Matthies, U.; Danker-Hopfe, H.; Lang, U.E.; Mahlberg, R.; Hellweg, R. 2003. Chronic cannabis abuse raises nerve growth factor serum concentrations in drug-naive schizophrenic patients. Journal of Psychopharmacology 17: 439-45.
51. Johns, A. 2001Psychiatric effects of cannabis. British Journal of Psychiatry 178: 116-22.
52. Johns, L.C.; Cannon, M; Singleton, N.; Murray, R.M.; Farrell, M.; Brugha, T.; Bebbington, P.; Jenkins, R. & Meltzer, H. 2004. Prevalence and correlates of self-reported psychotic symptoms in the British population. British Journal of Psychiatry 185: 298-305.
53. Kaplan, H.S. 1971. Psychosis associated with marijuana. New York State Journal of Medicine 71: 433-35.
54. Kay, S R.; Fiszbein, A. & Opler, L.A. 1987. The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 13: 261-76.
55. Kroll, P. 1975. Psychoses associated with marijuana use in Thailand. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 161: 149-56.
56. Leroy, S.; Griffon, N.; Bourdel, M.C.; Olié, J.P.; Poirier, M.F. & Krebs, M.O. 2001. Schizophrenia and the cannabinoid receptor type I (CBI): Association study using a single-base polymorphism in coding exon I. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) 105: 749-52.
57. Leweke, F.M.; Gerth, C.W. & Klosterkötter, J. 2004. Cannabis-associated psychosis. Current status of research. CNS Drugs 18: 895-910.
58. Leweke, F.M.; Giuffrida, A.; Wurster, U.; Emrich, H.M. & Piomelli, D. 1999. Elevated endogenous cannabinoids in schizophrenia. Neuroreport 10: 1665-9.
59. Linszen, D.H.; Dingemans, P.M. & Lenior, ME. 1994. Cannabis abuse and the course of recent-onset schizophrenic disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 51: 273-39.
60. Lishman, W.A. 1998. Organic Psychiatry: The Psychological Consequences of Cerebral Disorder. Third Edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
61. Macleod, J.; Oakes, R.; Copello, A.; Crome, I.; Egger, M.; Hickman, M.; Oppenkowski, T.; Stokes-Lampard, H. & Davey Smith, G. 2004. Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: A systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet 363: 1579-88.
62. Marken, P.A. & Stanislav, S.W. 2001. Chapter 76: Schizophrenia. In: M.A. Koda-Kimble; L.Y. Young LY; W.A. Kradjan & BJ. Guglielmo (Eds.) Applied Therapeutics. The Clinical Use of Drugs, Seventh Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
63. Martinez-Arevalo, M.J.; Calcedo-Ordonez, A. & Varo-Prieto, J.R., 1994. Cannabis consumption as a prognostic factor in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 164: 679-81.
64. McGuire, P; Jones, R.; Harvey, I.; Williams, M.; McGuffin, P & Murray, R. 1995. Morbid risk of schizophrenia for relatives of patients with cannabis associated psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 15: 277-81.
65. McKenna, P.J. 1987. Pathology, phenomenology and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 151: 288-301.
66. Moreau de Tours, J.J. 1845. Du Hachish et de L'aliénation Mentale. Éludes Psychologiques'. Paris: Masson.
67. Munro, S.; Thomas, KL. &Abu-Shaar, M. 1993. Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids. Nature 365: 61-5.
68. Negrete, J.C.; Knapp, WP.; Douglas, D.E. & Smith, W.B. 1986. Cannabis affects the severity of schizophrenic symptoms: Results of a clinical survey. Psychological Medicine 16: 515-20.
69. Peralta, V. & Cuesta, M.J. 1992. Influence of cannabis abuse on schizophrenic psychopathology. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 85: 127-30.
70. Phillips, L.J.; Curry, C.; Yung, A.R.; Yuen, H.P; Adlard, S. & McGorry, P.D. 2002. Cannabis use is not associated with the development of psychosis in an ‘ultra’ high-risk group. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 36: 800-06.
71. Potvin, S.; Stip, E. & Roy, J.Y. 2004. Schizophrénie et cannabinoi'des: Données cliniques, expérimentales et biologiques. Drogues, Santé et Société 2: 61-97.
72. Regier, D.A.; Farmer, M.E.; Rae, D.S.; Locke, B.Z.; Keith, S.J.; Judd, L.L. & Goodwin, F.K. 1990. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. Journal of the American Medical Association 264: 2511-8.
73. Rey, J.M.; Martin, A. & Krabman, P 2004. Is the party over? Cannabis and juvenile psychiatric disorder: The past I 0 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry 43: 1194-1205.
74. Salyers, M.P & Mueser, K.T. 2001. Social functioning, psychopathology, and medication side effects in relation to substance use and abuse in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 48: 109-23.
75. Semple, D.M.; Mcintosh, A.M. & Lawrie, S.M. 2005. Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review. Journal of Psychopharmacology 19: 187-94.
76. Sim, M.G.; Khong, E. & Hulse, G. 2004. Cannabis and psychosis. Australian Family Physician 33: 229-32.
77. Smit, F.; Bolier, L. & Cujpers, P. 2004. Cannabis use and the risk of later schizophrenia: A review. Addiction 99: 425-30.
78. Talbott, J.A. & Teague, J.W. 1969. Marihuana psychosis: Acute toxic psychosis associated with the use of cannabis derivatives. Journal of the American Medical Association 210: 299-302.
79. Tanda, G.; Pontieri, F.E. & Di Chiara, G. 1997. Cannabinoid and heroi activation of mesolimbic dopamine transmission by a common u opioid receptor mechanism. Science 276: 2048-50.
80. Teesson, M. 2004. Cannabis and psychosis: extending the debate. Addictio 99: 1352-53.
81. Tennant, F.S. & Groesbeck, C.J. 1972. Psychiatric effects of hashist Archives of General Psychiatry 27: 133-36.
82. Thacore, V.R. & Shukla, S.R.P 1976. Cannabis psychosis and paranoi schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 33: 383-6.
83. Thomas, H. 1996. A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis us< Drug and Atcohol Dependence 42: 201-07.
84. Tsapakis, E.M.; Guillin, O. & Murray, R.M. 2003. Does dopamin sensitization underlie the association between schizophrenia and dru abuse? Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16: S45-S52.
85. Ujike, H. 2002. Stimulant-induced psychosis and schizophrenia: The rol of sensitization. Current Psychiatry Reports 4: 177-84.
86. Ujike, H.; Takaki, M.; Nakata, K.; Tanaka, Y.; Takeda, T.; Kodama, M.; Fujiwara, Y.; Sakai, A. & Kuroda, S. 2002. CNRI, central cannabinoi receptor gene, associated with susceptibility to hebephreni schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry 7: 515-18.
87. United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime (UNODC). 2003. Global lllic Drug Trends 2003. New York: United Nations Office on Drugs an Crime.
88. Van os, J.; Bak, M., Hanssen, M.; Bijl, R.V.; de Graaf, R. & Verdoux, I 2002. Cannabis use and psychosis: A longitudinal population-base study. American Journal ofEpidemiology 156: 319-27.
89. Veen, N.D.; Selten, J.P; vander Tweel, I.; Feller, W.G.; Hoek, H.W.; IKahn, R.S. 2004. Cannabis use and age at onset of schizophrenic American Journal of Psychiatry 161: 501-06.
90. Verdoux, H. & Toumier, M. 2004. Cannabis et troubles psychotiques, qui lien étiologique ? Presse Médicale 33: 551-4.
91. Verdoux, H.; Gindre, C.; Sorbara, F.; Tournier, M. & Swendsen, J.D. 2001: Effects of cannabis and psychosis vulnerability in daily life: A experience sampling test study. Psychological Medicine 33: 23-32
92. Voruganti, L.N.P; Slomka, P.; Zabel, P.; Matter, A. & Awad, A.G. 2001: Cannabis induced dopamine release: An in-vivo SPECT stud: Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging Section 107: 173-77.
93. Zammit, S. & Lewis, G. 2004. Exploring the relationship between cannabi use and psychosis. Addiction 99: 1351-58.
94. Zammit, S.; Allebeck, P; Andreasson, S.; Lundberg, I. & Lewis, G. 2004: Self reported cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia i Swedish conscripts of 1969: historical cohort study. British Medici Journal 325: 1199-120l.