Review article: The diagnosis and management of Crohn's disease in populations with high-risk rates for tuberculosis

Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics

Volumn 25, Issue 12, 2007, Pages 1373-1388

  Epstein, D ^a   Watermeyer, G ^a   Kirsch, R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

^b MOUNT SINAI HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AZATHIOPRINE; CORTICOSTEROID; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; INFLIXIMAB; ISONIAZID; ISONIAZID PLUS RIFAMPICIN; MERCAPTOPURINE; PYRAZINAMIDE; RIFAMPICIN; STEROID; TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA INHIBITOR;

ABDOMINAL ANGIOGRAPHY; ALGORITHM; CROHN DISEASE; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE; GASTROINTESTINAL ENDOSCOPY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HISTOLOGY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INTESTINE TUBERCULOSIS; LAPAROSCOPY; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MONOTHERAPY; PATHOLOGIST; PATIENT CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIOGRAPHY; RADIOLOGY; REVIEW; TREATMENT PLANNING; TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL;

ALGORITHMS; ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS; CROHN DISEASE; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; ENDEMIC DISEASES; ENDOSCOPY, GASTROINTESTINAL; HUMANS; IMMUNOLOGIC FACTORS; RISK FACTORS; TUBERCULOSIS, GASTROINTESTINAL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA;

EID: 34249861022     PISSN: 02692813     EISSN: 13652036     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03332.x     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. http://www.who.int.tb.publications/2007/factsheet_2007.pdf. Last accessed 18 April 2007.
2. Crohn B, Ginzburg L, Oppenheimer GD. Regional ileitis: a pathologic and clinical entity. JAMA 1932 99 : 1323 9.
3. Dye C. Global epidemiology of tuberculosis. Lancet 2006 367 : 938 40.
4. Global Tuberculosis Control Report WHO 2007 : Key findings. http://www.int/tb/publications/global_report/2007/key_findings/en/index.html. Last accessed 18 April 2007.
5. Toms I, Bitalo L. Cape Town TB control. A partnership between the Provincial Administration of the Western Cape Metropole Region and the City of Cape Town. Progress Report 1997-2003. http://www.hst.org.za/publications/618. Last accessed 18 April 2007.
6. Edginton ME, Wong ML, Phofa R, et al. Tuberculosis at Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital: numbers of patients diagnosed and outcomes of referrals to district clinics. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2005 9 : 398 402.
7. Raviglione MC, Smith IM. XDR Tuberculosis - Implications for global public health. NEJM 2007 356 : 656 9.
8. Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW, et al. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 2006 368 : 1575 80.
9. Pettengell KE, Larsen C, Garb M, et al. Gastrointestinal tuberculosis in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Q J Med 1990 74 : 303 8.
10. Sharma MP, Bhatia V. Abdominal tuberculosis. Indian J Med Res 2004 120 : 305 15.
11. Ouyang Q, Tandon R, Goh K-L, et al. The emergence of inflammatory bowel disease in the Asian Pacific region. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2005 21 : 408 13.
12. Wright JP, Froggatt J, O'Keefe EA, et al. The epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease in Cape Town 1980-1984. S Afr Med J 1996 70 : 10 5.
13. Lakatos PL. Recent trends in the epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: up or down? World J Gastroenterol 2006 14 : 6102 8.
14. Loftus EV. Clinical epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: incidence, prevalence and environmental influences. Gastroenterol 2004 126 : 1504 17.
15. Lee YJ, Yang SK, Byeon JS, et al. Analysis of colonoscopic findings in the differential diagnosis between intestinal tuberculosis and Crohn's disease. Endoscopy 2006 38 : 592 7.
16. Leung VKS, Law ST, Lam CW, et al. Intestinal tuberculosis in a regional hospital in Hong Kong: a 10 year experience. Hong Kong Med J 2006 12 : 264 71.
17. Patel N, Amarapurkar D, Agal S, et al. Gastrointestinal luminal tuberculosis: establishing a diagnosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004 19 : 1240 6.
18. Clarke DL, Thomson SR, Bisetty T, et al. A single surgical unit's experience with abdominal tuberculosis in the HIV/AIDS era. World J Surg 2007 30 : 1 11.
19. Wilson D, Nachega J, Morroni C, et al. Diagnosing smear negative tuberculosis using case definitions and treatment response in HIV-infected adults. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006 10 : 31 8.
20. Mayosi BM, Burgess LJ, Doubell AF, et al. Tuberculous pericarditis. Circulation 2005 112 : 3608 16.
21. Thwaites GE, Nquyen DB, Nquyen HD, et al. Dexamethasone for the treatment of tuberculous meningitis in adolescents and adults. N Engl J Med 2004 351 : 1741 51.
22. American Gastroenterological Association Institute. Technical review on corticosteroids, immunomodulators and infliximab in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2006 130 : 940 87.
23. Podolsky DK. Inflammatory bowel disease. N Engl J Med 2002 347 : 417 29.
24. Ottenhoff THM, Verreck FAW, Hoeve MA. Control of human host immunity to mycobacteria. Tuberculosis 2005 85 : 53 64.
25. Comalada M, Peppelenbosch MP. Impaired innate immunity in Crohn's disease. Trends Mol Med 2005 12 : 397 9.
26. Korzenik JR, Dieckgraefe BK, Valentine JF, et al. Sargramostim for active Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 2005 352 : 2193 201.
27. Gaya DR, Russell RK, Nimmo E, et al. New genes in inflammatory bowel disease: lessons for complex diseases? Lancet 2006 367 : 1271 84.
28. Krutzik SR, Modlin RL. The roll of Toll-like receptors in combating mycobacteria. Sem Immunol 2004 16 : 35 41.
29. van Heel DA, Ghosh S, Hunt KA, et al. Synergy between TLR9 and NOD2 innate responses is lost in genetic Crohn's disease. Gut 2005 54 : 1553 7.
30. van Heel DA, Ghosh S, Butler, et al. Muramyl dipeptide and toll-like receptor sensitivity in NOD2-associated Crohn's disease. Lancet 2005 365 : 1794 6.
31. Bafica A, Scanga CA, Feng CG, et al. TLR9 regulates Th1 responses and cooperates with TLR2 in mediating optimal resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Exp Med 2005 202 : 1715 24.
32. Ferwerda G, Girardin SE, Kullberg B, et al. NOD2 and Toll-like receptors are nonredundant recognition systems of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLos Pathog 2005 1 : e34.
33. Stockton JC, Howson JM, Awomoyi AA, et al. Polymorphisms in NOD2, Crohn's disease and susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2004 41 : 157 60.
34. Moller M, Nebel A, Kwiatkowski, et al. Host susceptibility to tuberculosis: CARD15 polymorphisms in a South African population. Mol Cell Probes 2007 21 : 148 151.
35. Simmons JD, Mullighan C, Welsh KI, et al. Vitamin D Receptor gene polymorphism: association with Crohn's disease susceptibility. Gut 2000 47 : 211 4.
36. Wilkinson RJ, Llewelyn M, TooSi Z, et al. Influence of Vitamin D deficiency and Vitamin D receptor polymorphisms on tuberculosis among Gujarati Asians in west London: a case control study. Lancet 2000 355 : 618 21.
37. Li HT, Zhang TT, Zhou YQ, et al. SLC11A1 (formerly NRAMP1) gene polymorphisms and tuberculosis susceptibility: a meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006 10 : 3 12.
38. Sechi LA, Gazouli M, Sieswerda LE, et al. Relationship between Crohn's disease, infection with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis and SLC11A1 gene polymorphisms in Sardinian patients. World J Gastroenterol 2006 12 : 7161 4.
39. Zaahl MG, Winter T, Warnich L, et al. Analysis of the three common mutations in the CARD15 gene (R702 W, G908R, 1007 fs) in South African coloured patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Mol Cell Probes 2005 19 : 278 81.
40. Alcais A, Fieschi C, Abel L, et al. Tuberculosis in children and adults: two distinct genetic diseases. J Exp Med 2005 202 : 1617 21.
41. Economou M, Trikalinos TA, Loizou KT, et al. Differential effects of NOD2 variants on Crohn's disease risk and phenotype in diverse populations: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004 99 : 2393 404.
42. Shanahan F. Probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease- therapeutic rationale and role. Adv Dr Del Rev 2004 56 : 809 18.
43. Guarner F, Malagelada JR. Gut flora in health and disease. Lancet 2003 360 : 51219.
44. Hugot JP, Chamaillard M, Zouali H, et al. Association of NOD2 leucine-rich repeats with susceptibility to Crohn's disease. Nature 2001 411 : 599 603.
45. Ogura Y, Bonen DK, Inohara N, et al. A frameshift mutation in NOD2 associated with susceptibility to Crohn's disease. Nature 2001 411 : 603 6.
46. Greenstein RJ. Is Crohn's disease caused by a mycobacterium? Comparisons with leprosy, tuberculosis and Johne's disease. Lancet Infec Dis 2003 3 : 507 14.
47. Traunmuller F. Etiology of Crohn's disease: do certain food additives cause intestinal inflammation by molecular mimicry of mycobacterial lipids. Med Hypotheses 2005 65 : 859 64.
48. Polymeros D, Bogdanos DP, Day R, et al. Does cross-reactivity between Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis and human intestinal antigens characterise Crohn's disease? Gastroenterology 2006 131 : 85 96.
49. Akgun Y. Intestinal and peritoneal tuberculosis: changing trends over 10 years and a review of 80 patients. Can J Surg 2005 48 : 131 6.
50. Lingenfelser T, Zak J, Marks IN, et al. Abdominal tuberculosis: still a potentially lethal disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1993 5 : 744 50.
51. Khan R, Abid S, Jafri W, et al. Diagnostic dilemma of abdominal tuberculosis in non-HIV patients: an ongoing challenge for physicians. World J Gastroenterol 2006 12 : 6371 5.
52. Loftus EV, Silverstein MD, Sandborn WJ, et al. Crohn's disease in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1940-1993: incidence, prevalence and survival. Gastroenterol 1998 114 : 1161 8.
53. Kapoor VK. Abdominal tuberculosis. Postgrad Med J 1998 74 : 459 67.
54. Walsh J. Diagnosis of intestinal tuberculosis. Trans Natl Assoc Prev Tuberc (London) 1909 5 : 217 22.
55. Wang HS, Chen WS, Su WJ, et al. The changing pattern of intestinal tuberculosis: 30 years experience. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1998 2 : 569 74.
56. Sato S, Yao K, Yao T, et al. Colonoscopy in the diagnosis of intestinal tuberculosis in asymptomatic patients. Gastrointest Endosc 2004 59 : 362 8.
57. Aston NO. Abdominal tuberculosis. World J Surg 1997 21 : 492 9.
58. Horvath KD, Whelan RL. Intestinal tuberculosis: return of an old disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1998 93 : 692 6.
59. Marshall JB. Tuberculosis of the gastrointestinal tract and peritoneum. Am J Gastroenterol 1993 88 : 989 99.
60. Gilinsky NH, Marks IN, Kottler RE, et al. Abdominal tuberculosis: a 10 year review. S Afr Med J 1983 64 : 849 57.
61. Gilinsky NH, Voigt MD, Bass DH, et al. Tuberculous perforation of the bowel. S Afr Med J 1986 70 : 44 6.
62. Bhansali SK. Abdominal tuberculosis: experience with 300 cases. Am J Gastroenterol 1977 67 : 324 37.
63. Novis BH, Bank S, Marks IN. Gastrointestinal and peritoneal tuberculosis: a study of cases at Groote Schuur Hospital 1962-1977. S Afr Med J 1973 47 : 365 72.
64. den Boon S, van Lill SWP, Borgdorff, et al. Association between smoking and tuberculosis infection: a population survey in a high tuberculosis incidence area. Thorax 2005 60 : 555 7.
65. Danese S, Semeraro S, Papa A, et al. Extra intestinal manifestations in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 2005 11 : 7227 36.
66. Franco-Paredes C, Diaz-Borjon A, Senger MA, et al. The ever expanding association between rheumatologic disease and tuberculosis. Am J Med 2006 119 : 470 7.
67. Umapathy KC, Begum R, Ravichandran G, et al. Comprehensive findings on clinical, bacteriological, histopathological and therapeutic aspects of cutaneous tuberculosis. Trop Med Int Health 2006 11 : 1521 8.
68. Kurup SK, Chan C-C. Mycobacterium related ocular inflammatory disease: diagnosis and management. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2006 35 : 203 9.
69. Miehsler W, Reinisch W, Valic E, et al. Is inflammatory bowel disease an independant and disease specific risk factor for thromboembolism? Gut 2004 53 : 542 8.
70. Robson SC, White NW, Aronson I, et al. Acute phase response and the hypercoagulable state in pulmonary tuberculosis. Brit J Haematol 1996 93 : 943 9.
71. White NW. Venous thrombosis and rifampicin. Lancet 1989 2 : 434 5.
72. Werbeloff L, Novis BH, Bank S, et al. The radiology of tuberculosis of the gastrointestinal tract. Br J Radiol 1973 46 : 329 36.
73. Nagi B, Sodhi KS, Kochhar R, et al. Small bowel tuberculosis: enteroclysis findings. Abdom Imaging 2004 29 : 335 40.
74. Terreblanche J. Fistula in ano: a five year survey at Groote Schuur Hospital and a review of the literature. S Afr Med J 1964 403 8.
75. Chen W-S, Leu S-Y, Hsu H, et al. Trend of large bowel tuberculosis and the relation with pulmonary tuberculosis. Dis Colon Rectum 1992 35 : 189 92.
76. Shah S, Thomas V, Mathan M, et al. Colonoscopic study of 50 patients with colonic tuberculosis. Gut 1992 33 : 347 51.
77. Singh V, Kumar P, Kamal J, et al. Clinicocolonoscopic profile of colonic tuberculosis. Am J Gastroenterol 1996 3 : 565 8.
78. Alvares JF, Devarbhavi H, Makhija P, et al. Clinical, colonoscopic, and histological profile of colonic tuberculosis in a tertiary hospital. Endoscopy 2005 37 : 351 6.
79. Omori H, Asahi H, Inoue Y, et al. Pulmonary involvement in Crohn's disease: report of a case and review of the literature. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2004 10 : 129 34.
80. Rangaka MX, Wilkinson KA, Seldon R, et al. Effect of HIV-1 infection on T-cell-based and skin test detection of tuberculosis infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007 175 : 514 20.
81. Verrier Jones J, Housley J, Ashurst PM, et al. Development of delayed hypersensitivity to dinitrochlorobenzene in patients with Crohn's disease. Gut 1969 10 : 52 6.
82. Dotan I, Fishman S, Dgani Y, et al. Antibodies against laminaribioside and chitobioside are novel serologic markers in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterol 2006 131 : 366 78.
83. Kim KM, Lee A, Choi KY, et al. Intestinal tuberculosis: clinicopathologic analysis and diagnosis by endoscopic biopsy. Am J Gastroenterol 1998 93 : 606 9.
84. Aoki G, Nagasako K, Nakae Y, et al. The fibercolonoscopic diagnosis of intestinal tuberculosis. Endoscopy 1975 7 : 113 21.
85. Bhargava DK, Kushwaha AKS, Dasarathy S, et al. Endoscopic diagnosis of segmental colonic tuberculosis. Gastrointest Endosc 1992 38 : 571 4.
86. Kalvaria I, Kottler RE, Marks IN. The role of colonoscopy in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 1988 10 : 516 23.
87. Pettengell KE, Pirie D, Simjee AE. The colonoscopic features of early intestinal tuberculosis. S Afr Med J 1991 79 : 279 80.
88. Hoon JR, Dockerty MB, Pemberton Jde J. Ileocecal tuberculosis including a comparison of this disease with nonspecific regional enterocolitis and noncaseous tuberculated enterocolitis. Int Abstr Surg 1950 91 : 417 40.
89. Lee FD, Roy AD. Ileo-caecal granulomata. Gut 1964 5 : 517 23.
90. Liu TH, Pan GZ, Chen MZ. Crohn's disease. Clinicopathologic manifestations and differential diagnosis from enterocolonic tuberculosis. Chin Med J (Engl) 1981 94 : 431 40.
91. Tandon HD, Prakash A. Pathology of intestinal tuberculosis and its distinction from Crohn's disease. Gut 1972 13 : 260 9.
92. Amarapurkar DN, Patel ND, Amarapurkar AD, et al. Tissue polymerase chain reaction in diagnosis of intestinal tuberculosis and Crohn's disease. J Assoc Physicians India 2004 52 : 863 7.
93. Gan HT, Chen YQ, Ouyang Q, et al. Differentiation between intestinal tuberculosis and Crohn's disease in endoscopic biopsy specimens by polymerase chain reaction. Am J Gastroenterol 2002 97 : 1446 51.
94. Kirsch R, Pentecost M, Hall Pde M, et al. Role of colonoscopic biopsy in distinguishing between Crohn's disease and intestinal tuberculosis. J Clin Pathol 2006 59 : 840 4.
95. Pulimood AB, Peter S, Ramakrishna B, et al. Segmental colonoscopic biopsies in the differentiation of ileocolic tuberculosis from Crohn's disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005 20 : 688 96.
96. Pulimood AB, Ramakrishna BS, Kurian G, et al. Endoscopic mucosal biopsies are useful in distinguishing granulomatous colitis due to Crohn's disease from tuberculosis. Gut 1999 45 : 537 41.
97. Zhou ZY, Luo HS. Differential diagnosis between Crohn's disease and intestinal tuberculosis in China. Int J Clin Pract 2006 60 : 212 4.
98. Bhargava DK, Tandon HD, Chawla TC, et al. Diagnosis of ileocecal and colonic tuberculosis by colonoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 1985 31 : 68 70.
99. Anand BS, Schneider FE, El-Zaatari FA, et al. Diagnosis of intestinal tuberculosis by polymerase chain reaction on endoscopic biopsy specimens. Am J Gastroenterol 1994 89 : 2248 9.
100. Balamurugan R, Venkataraman S, John KR, et al. PCR amplification of the IS6110 insertion element of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in fecal samples from patients with intestinal tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 2006 44 : 1884 6.
101. Vanhoenacker FM, De Backer AI, Op de Beeck, et al. Imaging of gastrointestinal and abdominal tuberculosis. Eur Radiol 2004 14 : E103 15.
102. Leder RA, Low VHS. Tuberculosis of the abdomen. Radiol Clin North Am 1995 33 : 691 705.
103. Pereira JM, Madureira AJ, Viera A, et al. Abdominal tuberculosis: imaging features. Eur J Radiol 2005 55 : 173 80.
104. Balthazar EJ, Gordon R, Hulnick D. Ileocaecal tuberculosis: CT and radiologic evaluation. Am J Roentgenol 1990 154 : 499 503.
105. Gore RM, Balthazar EJ, Ghahremani GG, et al. CT features of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Am J Roentgenol 1996 167 : 3 15.
106. De Backer AI, Mortelé KJ, Deeren D, et al. Abdominal tuberculous lymphadenopathy: MRI features. Eur Radiol 2005 15 : 2104 9.
107. MacKalski BA, Bernstein CN. New diagnostic imaging tools for inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 2006 55 : 733 41.
108. Ambrosinin R, Barchiesi A, Di Mizio V, et al. Inflammatory chronic disease of the colon: how to image. Eur J Radiol 2007 61 : 442 8.
109. Miller GG, Blair GK, Murphy JJ. Diagnostic laparoscopy in childhood Crohn's disease. J Paed Surg 1996 31 : 846 8.
110. Sheehan AL, Warren BF, Gear MWL, et al. Fat-wrapping in Crohn's disease: pathological basis and relevance to surgical practice. Br J Surg 1992 79 : 955 8.
111. Rai S, Thomas WM. Diagnosis of abdominal tuberculosis: the importance of laparoscopy. J Royal Soc Med 2003 96 : 586 8.
112. Bhargava DK, Shriniwas Chopra P, et al. Peritoneal tuberculosis: laparoscopic patterns and its diagnostic accuracy. Am J Gastroenterol 1992 87 : 109 12.
113. Keane J, Gershon S, Wise RP, et al. Tuberculosis associated with Infliximab, a tumour necrosis factor-alpha neutralising agent. N Engl J Med 2001 345 : 1098 104.
114. Gardam MA, Keystone EC, Menzies R, et al. Anti-tumour necrosis factor agents and tuberculosis risk: mechanisms of action and clinical management. Lancet Infect Dis 2003 3 : 148 55.
115. Ormerod LP. BTS recommendations for assessing risk and for managing Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and disease in patients due to start anti-TNF-α treatment. Thorax 2005 60 : 800 5.
116. Lee E, Holzman RS. Evolution and current use of the tuberculin skin test. Clin Infect Dis 2002 34 : 365 70.
117. Jasmer RM, Nahid P, Hopewell PC. Clinical practise. Latent tuberculosis infection. N Engl J Med 2002 347 : 1860 6.
118. Wang L, Turner MO, Elwood RK, et al. A meta-analysis of the effect of Bacille-Calmette-Guerin vaccination on tuberculin skin test measurements. Thorax 2002 57 : 804 9.
119. Mow WS, Abreu-Martin MT, Papadakis KA, et al. High incidence of anergy in inflammatory bowel disease patients limits the usefulness of PPD screening before Infliximab therapy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004 2 : 309 13.
120. American Thoracic Society. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2000 161 : 1376 95.
121. Pai M, Riley LW, Colford Jr. JM. Inteferon-γ assays in the immunodiagnosis of tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 2004 4 : 761 76.
122. Bellete B, Coberly J, Barnes L, et al. Evaluation of a whole blood interferon-γ release assay for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 2 study populations. Clin Infect Dis 2002 34 : 1449 56.
123. Ferra G, Losi M, D' Amico R, et al. Use in routine clinical practise of two commercial blood tests for diagnosis of infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a prospective study. Lancet 2006 367 : 1328 34.
124. Mazurek GH, Jereb J, LoBue P, et al. Guidelines for using the QuantiFERON® -TB test for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, United States. MMWR 2005 15 (RR15 49 55.
125. Brock I, Ruhwald M, Lundgren B, et al. Latent tuberculosis in HIV positive, diagnosed by the M. tuberculosis specific interferon-gamma test. Respir Res 2006 7 : 56.
126. Lalvani A, Pathan AA, McShane H, et al. Rapid detection of M. tubecrculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2001 15 : 824 8.
127. Liebeschuetz S, Bamber S, Ewer K, et al. Diagnosis of tuberculosis in South African children with a T-cell based assay: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2004 364 : 2196 203.
128. Barnes PF. Weighing gold or counting spots. Which is more sensitive to diagnose latent tuberculosis infection? Am J Crit Care Med 2006 174 : 731 5.
129. Davies PDO, Drobniewski F. The use of INF-γ-based tests for the detection of latent tuberculosis infection. Eur Resp J 2006 28 : 1 3.
130. Sichletidis L, Settas L, Spyratos D, et al. Tuberculosis in patients receiving anti-TNF agents despite chemoprophylaxis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006 10 : 1127 32.
131. Jasmer RM, Saukkonen JJ, Blumberg HM, et al. Short-course rifampicin and pyrazinamide compared with isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infections; a multicenter clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2002 137 : 640 7.
132. Hernandez-Cruz B, Ponce-de-Leon-Rosales S, Sifuentes-Osornio J, et al. Tuberculosis prophylaxis in patients with steroid treatment and systemic rheumatic diseases. A case-control study. Clin Exp Rheum 1999 17 : 81 7.
133. Benito N, Sued O, Moreno A, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in liver transplant recipients in an endemic area. Transplantation 2002 74 : 1381 6.
134. Kim S-Y, Kim MJ, Chung JJ, et al. Abdominal tuberculous lymphadenopathy: MR imaging findings. Abdom Imaging 2000 25 : 627 32.
135. Tarumi KI, Koga H, Iida M, et al. Colonic apthoid erosions as the only manifestation of tuberculosis: case report. Gastrointest Endosc 2002 55 : 743 5.
136. Lawn SD, Obeng J, Acheampong JW, et al. Resolution of the acute-phase response in West African patients receiving treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lund Dis 2000 4 : 340 4.