Reading margins: Colonial encounters in sápmi and lenapehoking in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Feminist Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 491-521

  Fur, Gunlög ^a  

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EID: 34147212414     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/20459102     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. Lenapehoking designates a region including present-day New Jersey, the southeastern portion of New York State, eastern Pennsylvania, and most of Delaware. In the seventeenth century, Swedish colonists described the Native people of this region as "Renappi," derived from the name Lenape, meaning roughly "ordinary person." Toward the end of the century, Lenapes became known as Delawares. I follow the designation in the sources, thus using Lenape when discussing the seventeenth century, but Delawares in the eighteenth. In this article I also use Lenapehoking to refer to the homeland of Lenape/Delaware people even in western Pennsylvania and Ohio after they were forced to move there.
2. Rob Shields, Places on the Margin: Alternative Geographies of Modernity (London: Routledge, 1991), 4-5.
3. Sigrid Brauner, "Cannibals, Witches, and Shrews in the 'Civilizing Process,'" in "Neue Welt"/"Dritte Welt": Interkulturelle Beziehungen Deutschlands zu Lateinamerika und der Karibie, ed. Sigrid Bauschinger and Susan L. Cocalis (Tübingen, Germany: Francke Verlag, 1994), 20.
4. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995), 22, 24, 26ff.
5. Martha Hodes, "Introduction: Interconnecting and Diverging Narratives," in Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, ed. Martha Hodes (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 2-3.
6. Sherry B. Ortner, "Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?" in her Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture (Boston: Beacon Press 1996), 41;
7. Ortner, "The Virgin and the State," in Making Gender, 49, 57.
8. Johannes Tornæus, "Bäerttelse om Lapmarckerna och Deras Tillstånd," Bidrag till kännedom m de svenslw landsmålen och svenskt folkliv 17, no. 3, 48.
9. "Kongl. Swea Hof Rätts rescript till Kongl. Rådet och landshöfdingen in Westerås gref Lars Wallenstedt, S december 1694," manuscript division B 238, no. 114, Uppsala University Library; "Extra ordinarie ting, Skinnskatteberg, 1 september 1694," Västmanlands läns renoverade domböcker, Svea Hovrätts Collection, National Archives, Stockholm (hereafter NA); Gunlög Fur, "Gränsöverskridande kvinnor och svenska män. Kön och sexualitet på gränsen mellan samiskt och svenskt i tidigmodern tid," Kvinnovetenskaplig tidskrift 19, no. 1 (1998): 49-64.
10. The significant laws are contained in the ecclesiastical laws of 1571 and 1686. For a discussion, see Ann-Sofie Ohlander, Kärlek, död och frihet: Historiska uppsatser am människovärde och livsvifltor i Sverige (Stockholm: Norstedts förlag, 1986), 35-36;
11. Linda Oja, Varken Gud eller Natur: Synen på magi i 1600- och 1700-talets Sverige (Eslöv: B. Östlings bokförlag Symposion, 1999), 154.
12. Jonas Liliequist, "Staten och 'sodomiten'-tystnaden kring homosexuella handlingar i 1600- och 1700-talets Sverige," lambda nordica 1, nos. 1-2 (1995): 10.
13. Fredrik Silverstolpe, "Äktenskap mellan kvinnor under 1600- och 1700-talen," lambda nordica 1, no. 1 (1989): 195.
14. Arnold Van Gennep, The Rites of Passage (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1960). For Sweden, see Anders Wannberg, "Melankoli, synder och satan: En uppsats om självmord i Uppsala län 1682 till 1733," (unpub. thesis, History Institution, Uppsala University, 1995).
15. The official dictionary of the Swedish language (SAOB-Svenska Akademins Ordbok) gives two seventeenth-century definitions of the word "lapp": (1) a geographic and ethnic connotation referring to someone/something of Saami extraction; and (2) a piece of cloth.
16. Lennart Ericson, "De skäggiga bergsmännen i Nora," in Malt & Vardag: Hur man styrde, lede och tändle under svensk stormaktstid, ed. Stellan Dahlgren, Anders Florén, and Åsa Karlsson (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1993), 307-27.
17. Håkan Rydving, The End of Drum-Time: Religious Change among the Lule Saami, I670s-1740s (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1995), 140-44.
18. "Kriminalsaker refererade for Kungl. Maj:t 9/3 1667," Svea Hovrätts arkiv, Aic, National Archives, Stockholm; discussed in Olof Jansson, "Vidskepelse, trolldomsoch häxeriprocesser i Jämtland-Härjedalen," Fornvårdaren, no. 3 (1929): 90-96.
19. Jansson, "Vidskepelse, trolldoms- och häxeriprocesser," 94.
20. Oja, Varken Gud eller Natur, 134, 191-93, 228-29.
21. Ibid., 213-15, 221-29.
22. "Kriminalsaker refererade för Kungl."
23. Kaisa Korpijaakko, "Land Ownership among the Saami of Sweden-Finland: Theory and Practice," in Readings in Saami History, Culture, and Language, vol. 3, ed. Roger Kvist (Umeå, Sweden: Center for Arctic Cultural Research, 1992), 79-90;
24. Karin Granqvist, Samerna, staten och rätten I Torne lappmark under 1600-talet: Makt, diskurs och representation (Umeå, Sweden: Institutionen for historiska studier, 2004), 65-82.
25. There is some disagreement among scholars as to Madame Montour's origin and identity, and she has been identified, variously, as Catherine Couc, Elizabeth Couc, and Isabelle Montour, and her birth placed in 1667 as well as 1684 or 1685. For a discussion of this, and of French Margaret's relationship to her, see Nancy L. Hagedorn, " 'Faithful, Knowing, and Prudent': Andrew Montour as Interpreter and Cultural Broker, 1740-1772," in Between Indian and White Worlds: The Cultural Broker, ed. Margaret Connell Szasz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 44-45;
26. Jon Parmenter, "Isabel Montour: Cultural Broker on the Frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania," in The Human Tradition in Colonial America, ed. Ian K. Steele and Nancy Rhoden (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources Press, 1999), 141, 145;
27. James H. Merrell, "The Cast of His Countenance': Reading Andrew Montour," in Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America, ed. Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 13-39;
28. Alison Duncan Hirsch, "Indian, Métis, and Euro-American Women on Multiple Frontiers," in Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania, ed. William A. Pencak and Daniel K. Richter (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004), 63-84. See also: http://rootsonweb.com/~srgp/families/montour. htm.
29. Gnadenhütten, Penn., Diary, 1754-1755, box 118, F. 2, 8 Aug. 1754, Bethlehem, Moravian Archives (hereafter MA); Shamokin, Penn., Diary, 1742-1755, box 121, F. 7, 17 Apr. 1755; 16 June 1755, MA.
30. Robert S. Grurnet, ed., Journey on the Forbidden Path: Chronicles of a Diplomatic Mission to the Allegheny Country, March-September, 1760 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1999), 106-9, 124-25, 139.
31. http://rootsweb.com/~srgp/families/montour.htm. On the violence in the Wyoming Valley, see John K. Mahon, "Indian-United States Military Situation, 1775-1848," in Handbook of North American Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1988), 144-48.
32. Rydving, The End of Drum-Time, 151-56.
33. "Resa till Årsilla Lappmark, Åhr 1715," copy in Nordbergs arkiv, 25: 24, Umeå University Library.
34. Rydving, The End of Drum-Time, 153.
35. Robert J.C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race (London: Routledge, 1995).
36. See Alfred A. Cave, "The Delaware Prophet Neolin: A Reappraisal," Ethnohistory 46 (Spring 1999): 265-66;
37. Gregory E. Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).
38. Gunlög Fur, "'Some Women Are Wiser than Some Men': Gender and Native American History," in Clearing the Path: Theorizing Native American History, ed. Nancy Shoemaker (New York: Routledge, 2002), 88-91.
39. Susan Sleeper-Smith, "Women, Kin, and Catholicism: New Perspectives on the Fur Trade," Ethnohistory 47 (Spring 2000): 424, 441;
40. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
41. "White River, Ind., 1800-1806," box 177, F.17, no. 1, 28 Apr. 1805; F.7, 14 May 1805; F.7, 13 Feb. 1805; F.18, no. 1, 1 Feb. 1806, MA; Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delawares: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)." Ethnohistory 44 (Winter 1997): 125.
42. See Jay Miller, "The 1806 Purge among the Indiana Delaware: Sorcery, Gender. Boundaries, and Legitimacy," Ethnohistory 41 (Spring 1994): 251-52.
43. "White River, Ind., 1800-1806," box 177, F.7, 13 Feb. 1805; "Gott selbst, und auch einen Engel," F.8, 25 Jan. 1806; also F.18, no. 1, l Feb. 1806; F.17, no. 1, 28 Apr. 1805, MA.
44. "White River, Ind., 1800-1806," "Diese alberne Fabel und Geschwätz des Weibes," box, 177, F.7, 13 Feb. 1805; "Die lügene Prophetin," F.8, 29 Aug. 1806; F.7, 25 Sept. 1805; F.7, 14 May 1805, MA.
45. Cave, "The Delaware Prophet Neolin," 266, 284.
46. On women and spiritual leadership, see; John Heckewelder, An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations; Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States (Philadelphia: Abraham Small, 1819), 200-1;
47. Thomas Chalkley, A Journal or, Historical Account of the Life, Travels, and Christian Experiences (London, 1751), 50;
48. "Goschgoschünk Diary, 1768-1769," box 135, F.2, 15 July 1768, MA; Thomas Brainerd, ed., Life of John Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865), 233-34. On links to Pachgantschihilas, see: "White River, Ind. 1800-1806," box 177, F.7, 13 Feb, 1805, MA; Miller, "The 1806 Purge among the Indiana Delaware," 252. On significance of prophetic visions, see Interview with Edward Thompson, 13 Feb. 1984, 1984.018.A-B, Oklahoma Historical Society (sound tape).
49. Letters from 3 July and 16 July 1651, in "Kopebrev med indianerna, 1651-1652," Handel och Sjöfart.vol. 194, NA.
50. Amandus Johnson, The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware, 1638-1664, vol. 2 (Philadelphia: Swedish Colonial Society, 1911), 438.
51. C.A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1972), 127. Weslager thought Notike a man even though the name Notike carries the typically female ending -ke.
52. Stellan Dahlgren and Hans Norman, The Rise and Pall of New Sweden: Governor Risingh's Journal, 1654-1655, in Its Historical Context (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1988), 77;
53. also C.A. Weslager, The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle (New York: Middle Atlantic Press, 1987), 65-74.
54. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975), chap. 8.
55. Carl Linnæus, Lapplandsresa år 1732, ed. Magnus von Platen and Carl-Otto von Sydow (Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1975), 60, 61, 61-62.
56. Gunnar Broberg, Homo Sapiens L. Studier i Carl von Linnés naturuppfattning och människolära (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975), 206ff, 244.
57. Jennifer L. Morgan, "'Some Could Suckle Over Their Shoulder': Male Travelers, Female Bodies, and the Gendering of Racial Ideology, 1500-1770," William and Mary Quarterly 54, no. 1 (1997): 170.
58. Linnæus, Lapplandsresa, 62, 63.
59. Ibid., 63.
60. Broberg, Homo Sapiens L., 262-65.
61. Linnæus, Lapplandsresa, 143, 169, 118, 111.
62. Ibid., 62.
63. Nicolaus Lundius, "Descriptio Lapponiæ," Bidrag till kännedom, 17, no. 5 (1905): 40.
64. Tornasus, "Berättelse om Lapmarckerna och Deras Tillstånd," 46.
65. For other examples, see Margaret Connell Szasz, "Samson Occom: Mohegan as Spiritual Intermediary," in Between Indian and White Worlds, 77.
66. Shields, Places on the Margin, 5-6.