The Delaware prophet Neolin: A reappraisal

Ethnohistory

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 264-290

  Cave, Alfred A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033089766     PISSN: 00141801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (115)

1. Anthony F. C. Wallace provides the standard definition of revitalization as "a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture." In his analysis, nativism, the restoration of control to a culturally displaced people, is one of several forms which revitalization may assume. "Nativistic Movements . . . are revitalization movements characterized by strong emphasis on the elinination of alien persons, customs, values, and/or material from the mazeway." "Revitalization Movements," American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 265. The most useful worldwide survey of revitalization movements is Byran R. Wilson, Magic and the Millennium: A Sociological Study of Religious Movements of Protest among Tribal and Third-World Peoples (New York, 1973). See also Vittorio Lanternari, Religions of the Oppressed: A Study of Modern Messanic Cults (New York, 1963). For an invaluable guide to the very extensive literature on this subject, see Harold W. Turner, Bibliography of New Religious Movements in Primal Societies (Boston, 1978). The second volume of this six-volume work deals with North America.
2. Anthony F. C. Wallace provides the standard definition of revitalization as "a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture." In his analysis, nativism, the restoration of control to a culturally displaced people, is one of several forms which revitalization may assume. "Nativistic Movements . . . are revitalization movements characterized by strong emphasis on the elinination of alien persons, customs, values, and/or material from the mazeway." "Revitalization Movements," American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 265. The most useful worldwide survey of revitalization movements is Byran R. Wilson, Magic and the Millennium: A Sociological Study of Religious Movements of Protest among Tribal and Third-World Peoples (New York, 1973). See also Vittorio Lanternari, Religions of the Oppressed: A Study of Modern Messanic Cults (New York, 1963). For an invaluable guide to the very extensive literature on this subject, see Harold W. Turner, Bibliography of New Religious Movements in Primal Societies (Boston, 1978). The second volume of this six-volume work deals with North America.
3. Anthony F. C. Wallace provides the standard definition of revitalization as "a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture." In his analysis, nativism, the restoration of control to a culturally displaced people, is one of several forms which revitalization may assume. "Nativistic Movements . . . are revitalization movements characterized by strong emphasis on the elinination of alien persons, customs, values, and/or material from the mazeway." "Revitalization Movements," American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 265. The most useful worldwide survey of revitalization movements is Byran R. Wilson, Magic and the Millennium: A Sociological Study of Religious Movements of Protest among Tribal and Third-World Peoples (New York, 1973). See also Vittorio Lanternari, Religions of the Oppressed: A Study of Modern Messanic Cults (New York, 1963). For an invaluable guide to the very extensive literature on this subject, see Harold W. Turner, Bibliography of New Religious Movements in Primal Societies (Boston, 1978). The second volume of this six-volume work deals with North America.
4. Anthony F. C. Wallace provides the standard definition of revitalization as "a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture." In his analysis, nativism, the restoration of control to a culturally displaced people, is one of several forms which revitalization may assume. "Nativistic Movements . . . are revitalization movements characterized by strong emphasis on the elinination of alien persons, customs, values, and/or material from the mazeway." "Revitalization Movements," American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 265. The most useful worldwide survey of revitalization movements is Byran R. Wilson, Magic and the Millennium: A Sociological Study of Religious Movements of Protest among Tribal and Third-World Peoples (New York, 1973). See also Vittorio Lanternari, Religions of the Oppressed: A Study of Modern Messanic Cults (New York, 1963). For an invaluable guide to the very extensive literature on this subject, see Harold W. Turner, Bibliography of New Religious Movements in Primal Societies (Boston, 1978). The second volume of this six-volume work deals with North America.
5. Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 47, 40. The emphasis on the nontraditional aspects of the Delaware prophets' message is found also in Anthony F. C. Wallace, "New Religions among the Delaware Indians, 1600-1900," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12 (1956): 1-21, and in Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 279-85. White argues that "the various Delaware prophets, with their long exposure to Quaker and Moravian proselytizing, were actively integrating the concept of sin into the Algonquian world view" (281). By contrast, Gregory Evans Dowd (A Spirited Resistance: The North Aman Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 [Baltimore, MD, 1992], 23-36) stresses the prophets' roots in traditional Algonquian spirituality. See also Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760's: A Suggested Reinterpretation," American Indian Quarterly 12 (spring 1988): 108-15.
6. Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 47, 40. The emphasis on the nontraditional aspects of the Delaware prophets' message is found also in Anthony F. C. Wallace, "New Religions among the Delaware Indians, 1600-1900," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12 (1956): 1-21, and in Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 279-85. White argues that "the various Delaware prophets, with their long exposure to Quaker and Moravian proselytizing, were actively integrating the concept of sin into the Algonquian world view" (281). By contrast, Gregory Evans Dowd (A Spirited Resistance: The North Aman Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 [Baltimore, MD, 1992], 23-36) stresses the prophets' roots in traditional Algonquian spirituality. See also Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760's: A Suggested Reinterpretation," American Indian Quarterly 12 (spring 1988): 108-15.
7. Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 47, 40. The emphasis on the nontraditional aspects of the Delaware prophets' message is found also in Anthony F. C. Wallace, "New Religions among the Delaware Indians, 1600-1900," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12 (1956): 1-21, and in Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 279-85. White argues that "the various Delaware prophets, with their long exposure to Quaker and Moravian proselytizing, were actively integrating the concept of sin into the Algonquian world view" (281). By contrast, Gregory Evans Dowd (A Spirited Resistance: The North Aman Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 [Baltimore, MD, 1992], 23-36) stresses the prophets' roots in traditional Algonquian spirituality. See also Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760's: A Suggested Reinterpretation," American Indian Quarterly 12 (spring 1988): 108-15.
8. Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 47, 40. The emphasis on the nontraditional aspects of the Delaware prophets' message is found also in Anthony F. C. Wallace, "New Religions among the Delaware Indians, 1600-1900," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12 (1956): 1-21, and in Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 279-85. White argues that "the various Delaware prophets, with their long exposure to Quaker and Moravian proselytizing, were actively integrating the concept of sin into the Algonquian world view" (281). By contrast, Gregory Evans Dowd (A Spirited Resistance: The North Aman Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 [Baltimore, MD, 1992], 23-36) stresses the prophets' roots in traditional Algonquian spirituality. See also Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760's: A Suggested Reinterpretation," American Indian Quarterly 12 (spring 1988): 108-15.
9. Charles E. Hunter, "The Delaware Nativist Revival of the Mid-Eighteenth Century," Ethnohistory 18 (1971): 47, 40. The emphasis on the nontraditional aspects of the Delaware prophets' message is found also in Anthony F. C. Wallace, "New Religions among the Delaware Indians, 1600-1900," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12 (1956): 1-21, and in Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 279-85. White argues that "the various Delaware prophets, with their long exposure to Quaker and Moravian proselytizing, were actively integrating the concept of sin into the Algonquian world view" (281). By contrast, Gregory Evans Dowd (A Spirited Resistance: The North Aman Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 [Baltimore, MD, 1992], 23-36) stresses the prophets' roots in traditional Algonquian spirituality. See also Duane Champagne, "The Delaware Revitalization Movement of the Early 1760's: A Suggested Reinterpretation," American Indian Quarterly 12 (spring 1988): 108-15.
10. Elizabeth Vibert, " 'The Natives Were Strong to Live': Reinterpreting Nineteenth-Century Prophetic Movements in the Columbia Plateau," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 2.04. Vibert and others have stressed that studies of prophetic movements in the Northwest indicate that calls for revitalization in times of crisis do not necessarily require for their inspiration direct contact with colonizers. See also Leslie Spier, The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: The Source of the Ghost Dance, General Series in Anthropology, No. 1 (Menasha, WI, 1935); Christopher Miller, Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau (New Brunswick, NJ, 1985); Robert Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer Prophets of the Columbia Plateau (Norman, OK, 1989); David Aberle, "The Prophet Dance and Reactions to White Contact," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15 (1959): 74-78.
11. Elizabeth Vibert, " 'The Natives Were Strong to Live': Reinterpreting Nineteenth-Century Prophetic Movements in the Columbia Plateau," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 2.04. Vibert and others have stressed that studies of prophetic movements in the Northwest indicate that calls for revitalization in times of crisis do not necessarily require for their inspiration direct contact with colonizers. See also Leslie Spier, The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: The Source of the Ghost Dance, General Series in Anthropology, No. 1 (Menasha, WI, 1935); Christopher Miller, Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau (New Brunswick, NJ, 1985); Robert Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer Prophets of the Columbia Plateau (Norman, OK, 1989); David Aberle, "The Prophet Dance and Reactions to White Contact," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15 (1959): 74-78.
12. Elizabeth Vibert, " 'The Natives Were Strong to Live': Reinterpreting Nineteenth-Century Prophetic Movements in the Columbia Plateau," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 2.04. Vibert and others have stressed that studies of prophetic movements in the Northwest indicate that calls for revitalization in times of crisis do not necessarily require for their inspiration direct contact with colonizers. See also Leslie Spier, The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: The Source of the Ghost Dance, General Series in Anthropology, No. 1 (Menasha, WI, 1935); Christopher Miller, Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau (New Brunswick, NJ, 1985); Robert Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer Prophets of the Columbia Plateau (Norman, OK, 1989); David Aberle, "The Prophet Dance and Reactions to White Contact," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15 (1959): 74-78.
13. Elizabeth Vibert, " 'The Natives Were Strong to Live': Reinterpreting Nineteenth-Century Prophetic Movements in the Columbia Plateau," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 2.04. Vibert and others have stressed that studies of prophetic movements in the Northwest indicate that calls for revitalization in times of crisis do not necessarily require for their inspiration direct contact with colonizers. See also Leslie Spier, The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: The Source of the Ghost Dance, General Series in Anthropology, No. 1 (Menasha, WI, 1935); Christopher Miller, Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau (New Brunswick, NJ, 1985); Robert Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer Prophets of the Columbia Plateau (Norman, OK, 1989); David Aberle, "The Prophet Dance and Reactions to White Contact," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15 (1959): 74-78.
14. Elizabeth Vibert, " 'The Natives Were Strong to Live': Reinterpreting Nineteenth-Century Prophetic Movements in the Columbia Plateau," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 2.04. Vibert and others have stressed that studies of prophetic movements in the Northwest indicate that calls for revitalization in times of crisis do not necessarily require for their inspiration direct contact with colonizers. See also Leslie Spier, The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: The Source of the Ghost Dance, General Series in Anthropology, No. 1 (Menasha, WI, 1935); Christopher Miller, Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau (New Brunswick, NJ, 1985); Robert Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer Prophets of the Columbia Plateau (Norman, OK, 1989); David Aberle, "The Prophet Dance and Reactions to White Contact," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15 (1959): 74-78.
15. Wallace, "Revitalization Movements," 265.
16. John M'Culloch, "A Narrative of the Captivity of John M'Culloch, Esq.," in Archibald Loudon, A Selection of Some of the Most Interesting Narratives of Outrages Committed by The Indians in their Wars with the White People 2 vols. (Carlisle, PA, 1808), 1: 273-74.
17. Lenape means "the people." Lenni is sometimes translated as "real" but more properly is a redundancy word adding emphasis, as in "we the people." Some eighteenth-century observers claimed that the Delaware had long been organized into three large tribal entities, the Unalachtigo (Turkey), a coastal nation, the Unami (Turtle) in the adjacent interior, and the Munsi (Wolf) in the highlands, and a number of historians have followed their lead. But, as Robert Steven Grumet indicates, "the evidence suggests that those entities did not exist in the seventeenth century," but originated in exile communities in Pennsylvania and Ohio in the eighteenth century. " 'We Are Not So Great Fools': Changes in Upper Delawaran Socio-Political Life, 1630-1758" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1978), 23. Fieldwork among the modern Delaware conducted by Jay Miller failed to confirm the existence of the Unalachtigo, but did suggest that a group once known as the Winetkok merged with other refugee groups to form the historic Nanticoke. Miller, "The Unalachtigo?" Pennsylvania Archaeologist 44 (1974) 7-8.
18. Lenape means "the people." Lenni is sometimes translated as "real" but more properly is a redundancy word adding emphasis, as in "we the people." Some eighteenth-century observers claimed that the Delaware had long been organized into three large tribal entities, the Unalachtigo (Turkey), a coastal nation, the Unami (Turtle) in the adjacent interior, and the Munsi (Wolf) in the highlands, and a number of historians have followed their lead. But, as Robert Steven Grumet indicates, "the evidence suggests that those entities did not exist in the seventeenth century," but originated in exile communities in Pennsylvania and Ohio in the eighteenth century. " 'We Are Not So Great Fools': Changes in Upper Delawaran Socio-Political Life, 1630-1758" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1978), 23. Fieldwork among the modern Delaware conducted by Jay Miller failed to confirm the existence of the Unalachtigo, but did suggest that a group once known as the Winetkok merged with other refugee groups to form the historic Nanticoke. Miller, "The Unalachtigo?" Pennsylvania Archaeologist 44 (1974) 7-8.
19. William W. Newcomb Jr., The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians, Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, no. 10 (Ann Arbor, MI, 1956), 77. On the historical and cultural background, the following are of particular value: Herbert C. Kraft, The Lenape: Archaeology, History and Ethnography (Newark, DE, 1986); C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick, NJ, 1989); Ives Goddard, "Delaware," in Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast (Washington, DC, 1978), 15: 213-39.
20. William W. Newcomb Jr., The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians, Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, no. 10 (Ann Arbor, MI, 1956), 77. On the historical and cultural background, the following are of particular value: Herbert C. Kraft, The Lenape: Archaeology, History and Ethnography (Newark, DE, 1986); C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick, NJ, 1989); Ives Goddard, "Delaware," in Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast (Washington, DC, 1978), 15: 213-39.
21. William W. Newcomb Jr., The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians, Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, no. 10 (Ann Arbor, MI, 1956), 77. On the historical and cultural background, the following are of particular value: Herbert C. Kraft, The Lenape: Archaeology, History and Ethnography (Newark, DE, 1986); C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick, NJ, 1989); Ives Goddard, "Delaware," in Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast (Washington, DC, 1978), 15: 213-39.
22. William W. Newcomb Jr., The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians, Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, no. 10 (Ann Arbor, MI, 1956), 77. On the historical and cultural background, the following are of particular value: Herbert C. Kraft, The Lenape: Archaeology, History and Ethnography (Newark, DE, 1986); C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick, NJ, 1989); Ives Goddard, "Delaware," in Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast (Washington, DC, 1978), 15: 213-39.
23. Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians," 85.
24. Weslager, Delaware Indians, 173-221; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 (Lincoln, NE, 1992).
25. Weslager, Delaware Indians, 173-221; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 (Lincoln, NE, 1992).
26. Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 29.
27. Ibid., 31-32; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42. Some parts of Papoonan's message reflected his admiration of the Quakers and their pacifist philosophy. His teachings lacked the anger at whites and the call to militant resistance that generally characterized the Delaware prophetic movement. The Munsee prophet himself was converted to Christianity by the Moravian preacher David Zeisberger in 1763 and in the three years prior to his death in 1775 worked for Moravian missionaries on the Muskingum River of Ohio.
28. Ibid., 31-32; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42. Some parts of Papoonan's message reflected his admiration of the Quakers and their pacifist philosophy. His teachings lacked the anger at whites and the call to militant resistance that generally characterized the Delaware prophetic movement. The Munsee prophet himself was converted to Christianity by the Moravian preacher David Zeisberger in 1763 and in the three years prior to his death in 1775 worked for Moravian missionaries on the Muskingum River of Ohio.
29. John Hays, "Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 76-77; Frederick Post, "Journal," May 24, 25, 28, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, PA; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 32-33; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42-43; David Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Occupied Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (1818; reprint, Salem, NH, 1991), 293-94.
30. John Hays, "Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 76-77; Frederick Post, "Journal," May 24, 25, 28, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, PA; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 32-33; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42-43; David Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Occupied Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (1818; reprint, Salem, NH, 1991), 293-94.
31. John Hays, "Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 76-77; Frederick Post, "Journal," May 24, 25, 28, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, PA; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 32-33; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42-43; David Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Occupied Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (1818; reprint, Salem, NH, 1991), 293-94.
32. John Hays, "Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 76-77; Frederick Post, "Journal," May 24, 25, 28, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, PA; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 32-33; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42-43; David Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Occupied Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (1818; reprint, Salem, NH, 1991), 293-94.
33. John Hays, "Diary and Journal of 1760," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 24 (1954): 76-77; Frederick Post, "Journal," May 24, 25, 28, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, PA; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 32-33; Hunter, "Delaware Nativist Revival," 42-43; David Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Occupied Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (1818; reprint, Salem, NH, 1991), 293-94.
34. Thomas Brainerd, The Life of John Brainerd: Brother of David Brainerd and His Successor as Missionary to the Indians of New Jersey (Philadelphia, 1865), 233-35; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30. The prophetess had claimed that the "Great Power" had instructed her to denounce the use of "poison" by tribal leaders. David Brainerd conjectured that the practice she challenged was a form of witchcraft. But the prophetess's message may have been far broader than Brainerd realized. Dowd suggests that she was in the vanguard of a movement to oust local leaders who collaborated with the British, a movement that culminated in Delaware support of the French in the Seven Years War.
35. Thomas Brainerd, The Life of John Brainerd: Brother of David Brainerd and His Successor as Missionary to the Indians of New Jersey (Philadelphia, 1865), 233-35; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30. The prophetess had claimed that the "Great Power" had instructed her to denounce the use of "poison" by tribal leaders. David Brainerd conjectured that the practice she challenged was a form of witchcraft. But the prophetess's message may have been far broader than Brainerd realized. Dowd suggests that she was in the vanguard of a movement to oust local leaders who collaborated with the British, a movement that culminated in Delaware support of the French in the Seven Years War.
36. On the Native American frontier in the Ohio Valley, see McConnell, A Country Between.
37. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York, 1984), 160-62, 204-5, 215, 245-49, 301-2; Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 29-30; Jennings, " 'Pennsylvania Indians,' and the Iroquois," in Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 75-92; William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman, OK, 1998), 398-516. See Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14, for a very provocative discussion of the earlier history of Iroquois-Delaware relations. The relationship was not originally one of Delaware subjugation, but rather one in which they played a ritual role as peacekeepers. The testimony of twentieth-century Delaware informants suggests that their acceptance of supernatural prohibitions against violence may have made them particularly vulnerable to aggressors. See Jay Miller, "Kwulakan: The Delaware Side of Their Movement West," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 45 (1975): 45-46.
38. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York, 1984), 160-62, 204-5, 215, 245-49, 301-2; Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 29-30; Jennings, " 'Pennsylvania Indians,' and the Iroquois," in Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 75-92; William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman, OK, 1998), 398-516. See Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14, for a very provocative discussion of the earlier history of Iroquois-Delaware relations. The relationship was not originally one of Delaware subjugation, but rather one in which they played a ritual role as peacekeepers. The testimony of twentieth-century Delaware informants suggests that their acceptance of supernatural prohibitions against violence may have made them particularly vulnerable to aggressors. See Jay Miller, "Kwulakan: The Delaware Side of Their Movement West," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 45 (1975): 45-46.
39. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York, 1984), 160-62, 204-5, 215, 245-49, 301-2; Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 29-30; Jennings, " 'Pennsylvania Indians,' and the Iroquois," in Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 75-92; William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman, OK, 1998), 398-516. See Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14, for a very provocative discussion of the earlier history of Iroquois-Delaware relations. The relationship was not originally one of Delaware subjugation, but rather one in which they played a ritual role as peacekeepers. The testimony of twentieth-century Delaware informants suggests that their acceptance of supernatural prohibitions against violence may have made them particularly vulnerable to aggressors. See Jay Miller, "Kwulakan: The Delaware Side of Their Movement West," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 45 (1975): 45-46.
40. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York, 1984), 160-62, 204-5, 215, 245-49, 301-2; Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 29-30; Jennings, " 'Pennsylvania Indians,' and the Iroquois," in Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 75-92; William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman, OK, 1998), 398-516. See Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14, for a very provocative discussion of the earlier history of Iroquois-Delaware relations. The relationship was not originally one of Delaware subjugation, but rather one in which they played a ritual role as peacekeepers. The testimony of twentieth-century Delaware informants suggests that their acceptance of supernatural prohibitions against violence may have made them particularly vulnerable to aggressors. See Jay Miller, "Kwulakan: The Delaware Side of Their Movement West," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 45 (1975): 45-46.
41. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York, 1984), 160-62, 204-5, 215, 245-49, 301-2; Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 29-30; Jennings, " 'Pennsylvania Indians,' and the Iroquois," in Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 75-92; William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman, OK, 1998), 398-516. See Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14, for a very provocative discussion of the earlier history of Iroquois-Delaware relations. The relationship was not originally one of Delaware subjugation, but rather one in which they played a ritual role as peacekeepers. The testimony of twentieth-century Delaware informants suggests that their acceptance of supernatural prohibitions against violence may have made them particularly vulnerable to aggressors. See Jay Miller, "Kwulakan: The Delaware Side of Their Movement West," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 45 (1975): 45-46.
42. Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire (New York, 1984), 160-62, 204-5, 215, 245-49, 301-2; Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies & Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 29-30; Jennings, " 'Pennsylvania Indians,' and the Iroquois," in Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America (Syracuse, NY, 1987), 75-92; William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman, OK, 1998), 398-516. See Jay Miller, "The Delaware as Women: A Symbolic Solution," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 507-14, for a very provocative discussion of the earlier history of Iroquois-Delaware relations. The relationship was not originally one of Delaware subjugation, but rather one in which they played a ritual role as peacekeepers. The testimony of twentieth-century Delaware informants suggests that their acceptance of supernatural prohibitions against violence may have made them particularly vulnerable to aggressors. See Jay Miller, "Kwulakan: The Delaware Side of Their Movement West," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 45 (1975): 45-46.
43. Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians," 87.
44. White, Middle Ground, 225; Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701-1754 (Detroit, 1983), 196-97.
45. White, Middle Ground, 225; Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701-1754 (Detroit, 1983), 196-97.
46. C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Westward Migration (Walingford, PA, 1978), 15; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 266-67, 344-46; Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 414-15; Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyscung, 1700-1763 (1949; reprint, Freeport, NY, 1970), 56-115.
47. C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Westward Migration (Walingford, PA, 1978), 15; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 266-67, 344-46; Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 414-15; Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyscung, 1700-1763 (1949; reprint, Freeport, NY, 1970), 56-115.
48. C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Westward Migration (Walingford, PA, 1978), 15; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 266-67, 344-46; Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 414-15; Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyscung, 1700-1763 (1949; reprint, Freeport, NY, 1970), 56-115.
49. C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Westward Migration (Walingford, PA, 1978), 15; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 266-67, 344-46; Fenton, Great Law and the Longhouse, 414-15; Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyscung, 1700-1763 (1949; reprint, Freeport, NY, 1970), 56-115.
50. Beverley W. Bond Jr., ed., "The Captivity of Charles Stuart," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 31 (1926): 63.
51. For a particularly perceptive account of Amherst's Indian policy, see White, Middle Ground, 256-71.
52. [Robert Navarre], Journal of Pontiac's Conspiracy 1763, trans. R. Clyde Ford (Detroit, 1910), 20-32. Pontiac's representations of Neolin's teachings were consistent with other accounts except in one particular. For political reasons, Pontiac represented the Master of Life as hostile to the British but friendly to the French. Neolin made no such distinction. His message is clearly anti-white, not just anti-British. Some scholars also feel Pontiac may have misrepresented Neolin in calling for an armed uprising. But given the uncompromising nativist tone of his teachings, it is unlikely that the prophet would have been bothered by Pontiac's invocation of the Master of Life in his call to arms. The question of whether Neolin himself ever explicitly advocated armed resistance cannot be resolved, given the ambiguity of the sources, but the report of John M'Culloch ("Narrative of the Captivity") strongly suggests that the promise of an expulsion of Europeans was at the heart of his message.
53. Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs, 291-93.
54. M'Culloch, "Narrative of the Captivity," 273-76. John Jordan, ed., "Journal of James Kenny, 1761-1763," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 31 (1913): 188.
55. M'Culloch, "Narrative of the Captivity," 273-76. John Jordan, ed., "Journal of James Kenny, 1761-1763," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 31 (1913): 188.
56. Kraft, Lenape, 162-66.
57. Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 3.
58. Dennis Tedlock and Barbara Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the American Earth: Indian Religion and Philosophy (New York, 1992), xvii-xviii.
59. Ake Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwell (Berkeley, CA, 1980), 15-27; Ruth M. Underbill, Red Man's Religion (Chicago, 1965), 3; Sam D. Gill, Native American Religions: An Introduction (Belmont, CA, 1982), 15-38; Paul Radin, "Monotheism among Native Americans," in Tedlock and Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the American Earth, 119-47; J. M. Cooper, "The Northern Algonquian Supreme Being," Primitive Man 6 (1933): 41-111.
60. Ake Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwell (Berkeley, CA, 1980), 15-27; Ruth M. Underbill, Red Man's Religion (Chicago, 1965), 3; Sam D. Gill, Native American Religions: An Introduction (Belmont, CA, 1982), 15-38; Paul Radin, "Monotheism among Native Americans," in Tedlock and Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the American Earth, 119-47; J. M. Cooper, "The Northern Algonquian Supreme Being," Primitive Man 6 (1933): 41-111.
61. Ake Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwell (Berkeley, CA, 1980), 15-27; Ruth M. Underbill, Red Man's Religion (Chicago, 1965), 3; Sam D. Gill, Native American Religions: An Introduction (Belmont, CA, 1982), 15-38; Paul Radin, "Monotheism among Native Americans," in Tedlock and Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the American Earth, 119-47; J. M. Cooper, "The Northern Algonquian Supreme Being," Primitive Man 6 (1933): 41-111.
62. Ake Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwell (Berkeley, CA, 1980), 15-27; Ruth M. Underbill, Red Man's Religion (Chicago, 1965), 3; Sam D. Gill, Native American Religions: An Introduction (Belmont, CA, 1982), 15-38; Paul Radin, "Monotheism among Native Americans," in Tedlock and Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the American Earth, 119-47; J. M. Cooper, "The Northern Algonquian Supreme Being," Primitive Man 6 (1933): 41-111.
63. Ake Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwell (Berkeley, CA, 1980), 15-27; Ruth M. Underbill, Red Man's Religion (Chicago, 1965), 3; Sam D. Gill, Native American Religions: An Introduction (Belmont, CA, 1982), 15-38; Paul Radin, "Monotheism among Native Americans," in Tedlock and Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the American Earth, 119-47; J. M. Cooper, "The Northern Algonquian Supreme Being," Primitive Man 6 (1933): 41-111.
64. Jasper Dankers and Peter Sluyter, Journal of a Voyage to New York and a Tour of Several American Colonies in 1679-80 (New York: Long Island Historical Society, 1867), 150-51.
65. M. H. Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape, Indian Notes and Monographs 19 (Museum of the American Indian; Heye Foundation) (New York, 1921), 24-25.
66. Kraft, Lenape, 162-63.
67. Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians," 59.
68. C. C. Trowbridge, "Account of Some of the Traditions, Manners and Customs of the Lenee Lenaupaa or Delaware Indians," in Weslager, Delaware Indians, 493.
69. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs, 212.
70. Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)," Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 113-34 (quotation from pp. 114-15); Miller, "A Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite" University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 21 (1980): 107-33. The most detailed account is Frank G. Speck, A Study of the Delaware Big House Rite (Harrisburg, PA, 1931). However, Speck's work is somewhat flawed by his overreliance on an unreliable informant. See Miller, "Structural Analysis," 11. Other useful accounts of the Big House Ceremony may be found in Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Although some writers have maintained that the Big House Ceremony was the work of eighteenth-or early-nineteenth-century revitaliza-tion leaders, it probably originated much earlier through the consolidation of several ceremonies of considerable antiquity. Delaware folklore relating to the institution of this ceremony is varied, but contains no hint that the prophets or their teachings played any role in its institution. See John Bierhorst, Mythology of the Lenape (Tucson, AZ, 1995), 39, 50-51, 66.
71. Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)," Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 113-34 (quotation from pp. 114-15); Miller, "A Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite" University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 21 (1980): 107-33. The most detailed account is Frank G. Speck, A Study of the Delaware Big House Rite (Harrisburg, PA, 1931). However, Speck's work is somewhat flawed by his overreliance on an unreliable informant. See Miller, "Structural Analysis," 11. Other useful accounts of the Big House Ceremony may be found in Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Although some writers have maintained that the Big House Ceremony was the work of eighteenth-or early-nineteenth-century revitaliza-tion leaders, it probably originated much earlier through the consolidation of several ceremonies of considerable antiquity. Delaware folklore relating to the institution of this ceremony is varied, but contains no hint that the prophets or their teachings played any role in its institution. See John Bierhorst, Mythology of the Lenape (Tucson, AZ, 1995), 39, 50-51, 66.
72. Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)," Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 113-34 (quotation from pp. 114-15); Miller, "A Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite" University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 21 (1980): 107-33. The most detailed account is Frank G. Speck, A Study of the Delaware Big House Rite (Harrisburg, PA, 1931). However, Speck's work is somewhat flawed by his overreliance on an unreliable informant. See Miller, "Structural Analysis," 11. Other useful accounts of the Big House Ceremony may be found in Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Although some writers have maintained that the Big House Ceremony was the work of eighteenth-or early-nineteenth-century revitaliza-tion leaders, it probably originated much earlier through the consolidation of several ceremonies of considerable antiquity. Delaware folklore relating to the institution of this ceremony is varied, but contains no hint that the prophets or their teachings played any role in its institution. See John Bierhorst, Mythology of the Lenape (Tucson, AZ, 1995), 39, 50-51, 66.
73. Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)," Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 113-34 (quotation from pp. 114-15); Miller, "A Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite" University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 21 (1980): 107-33. The most detailed account is Frank G. Speck, A Study of the Delaware Big House Rite (Harrisburg, PA, 1931). However, Speck's work is somewhat flawed by his overreliance on an unreliable informant. See Miller, "Structural Analysis," 11. Other useful accounts of the Big House Ceremony may be found in Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Although some writers have maintained that the Big House Ceremony was the work of eighteenth-or early-nineteenth-century revitaliza-tion leaders, it probably originated much earlier through the consolidation of several ceremonies of considerable antiquity. Delaware folklore relating to the institution of this ceremony is varied, but contains no hint that the prophets or their teachings played any role in its institution. See John Bierhorst, Mythology of the Lenape (Tucson, AZ, 1995), 39, 50-51, 66.
74. Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)," Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 113-34 (quotation from pp. 114-15); Miller, "A Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite" University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 21 (1980): 107-33. The most detailed account is Frank G. Speck, A Study of the Delaware Big House Rite (Harrisburg, PA, 1931). However, Speck's work is somewhat flawed by his overreliance on an unreliable informant. See Miller, "Structural Analysis," 11. Other useful accounts of the Big House Ceremony may be found in Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Although some writers have maintained that the Big House Ceremony was the work of eighteenth-or early-nineteenth-century revitaliza-tion leaders, it probably originated much earlier through the consolidation of several ceremonies of considerable antiquity. Delaware folklore relating to the institution of this ceremony is varied, but contains no hint that the prophets or their teachings played any role in its institution. See John Bierhorst, Mythology of the Lenape (Tucson, AZ, 1995), 39, 50-51, 66.
75. Jay Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware: The Gamwing (Big House Rite)," Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 113-34 (quotation from pp. 114-15); Miller, "A Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite" University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 21 (1980): 107-33. The most detailed account is Frank G. Speck, A Study of the Delaware Big House Rite (Harrisburg, PA, 1931). However, Speck's work is somewhat flawed by his overreliance on an unreliable informant. See Miller, "Structural Analysis," 11. Other useful accounts of the Big House Ceremony may be found in Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Although some writers have maintained that the Big House Ceremony was the work of eighteenth-or early-nineteenth-century revitaliza-tion leaders, it probably originated much earlier through the consolidation of several ceremonies of considerable antiquity. Delaware folklore relating to the institution of this ceremony is varied, but contains no hint that the prophets or their teachings played any role in its institution. See John Bierhorst, Mythology of the Lenape (Tucson, AZ, 1995), 39, 50-51, 66.
76. Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape, 18-19.
77. Peter Lindstrom, Geographia Americae: With an Account of the Delaware Indians, trans. Amandus Johnson (1656; reprint, Philadelphia: Swedish Colonial Society, 1925), 208.
78. Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, eds., "David Zeisberger's History of the North American Indians," Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 19 (1910): 127.
79. Lindstrom, Geographicae Americae, 208.
80. Christopher P. Gavalier, "The Empty Lot: Spiritual Contact in Lenape and Moravian Religious Beliefs," American Indian Quarterly 8 (spring 1994): 220.
81. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 53.
82. Lindstrom, Geographicae Americae, 207.
83. Hulbert and Schwarze, "David Zeisberger's History," 127.
84. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
85. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
86. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
87. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
88. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
89. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
90. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
91. Quotation from Tedlock and Tedlock, Teachings from the American Earth, xviii. The literature on shamanism is extensive. Mircea Eliade's magisterial Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, NJ, 1964) provides an invaluable worldwide comparative perspective. For a succinct summary of information on Delaware shamanism, see Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware," 69-70. Also of use are D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends (Philadelphia, 1885); Richard C. Adams, The Ancient Religion of the Delaware (Washington, DC, 1903); and M. H. Harrington, "Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape." Contemporary reports on shamanic practices among the Delaware are to be found in Brainerd, ed., Memoirs of Reverend David Brainerd Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs; Lindstrom, Geographia Americae; Daniel Denton, A Brief Description of New York Formerly Called New Netherlands (London, 1670).
92. John A. Grim, The Shaman (Norman, OK, 1983), 13.
93. Weslager, Delaware Indians, 68.
94. Kraft, Lenape, 162-66.
95. Newcomb, "Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians," 60-61.
96. Miller, "Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite," 117; "Old Religion among the Delaware," 114, 123.
97. Miller, "Structuralist Analysis of the Delaware Big House Rite," 117; "Old Religion among the Delaware," 114, 123.
98. Miller, "Old Religion among the Delaware," 124.
99. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs, 295; David Zeisberger, Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio (Cincinnati, OH, 1885), 2:94; Zeisberger, "History of North American Indians," 126; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30; Alfred A. Cave, "The Failure of the Shawnee Prophet's Witch-hunt," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 447-51.
100. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs, 295; David Zeisberger, Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio (Cincinnati, OH, 1885), 2:94; Zeisberger, "History of North American Indians," 126; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30; Alfred A. Cave, "The Failure of the Shawnee Prophet's Witch-hunt," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 447-51.
101. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs, 295; David Zeisberger, Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio (Cincinnati, OH, 1885), 2:94; Zeisberger, "History of North American Indians," 126; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30; Alfred A. Cave, "The Failure of the Shawnee Prophet's Witch-hunt," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 447-51.
102. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs, 295; David Zeisberger, Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio (Cincinnati, OH, 1885), 2:94; Zeisberger, "History of North American Indians," 126; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30; Alfred A. Cave, "The Failure of the Shawnee Prophet's Witch-hunt," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 447-51.
103. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs, 295; David Zeisberger, Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio (Cincinnati, OH, 1885), 2:94; Zeisberger, "History of North American Indians," 126; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 30; Alfred A. Cave, "The Failure of the Shawnee Prophet's Witch-hunt," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 447-51.
104. Quotation from Loskiel in Harrington, "Religion of the Lenape," 25. See also Kraft, The Lenape, 163.
105. Quotation from Loskiel in Harrington, "Religion of the Lenape," 25. See also Kraft, The Lenape, 163.
106. Jonathan Edwards, The Life of David Brainerd, ed. Norman Pettit (New Haven, 1985), 329-330.
107. Heckewelder, History, Manners, Customs, 291-93.
108. For a statement of this view, see White, The Middle Ground, 281.
109. M'Culloch, "Narrative of the Captivity," 273-76; Kenny, "Journal," 188. It should also be noted that a teaching attributed to Neolin in one report from a Euro-American trader, unconfirmed indeed contradicted in other sources, has erroneously been interpreted as an example of Christian influence. According to James Kenny, cited above, Neolin told his followers that they could not address the creator directly, but must pray instead to "the little god." Some scholars have identified 'the little god" with Jesus Christ. But there is nothing in Kenny's report to suggest that Neolin was speaking of a Messiah, savior or human son of the creator, or of a being that suffered to atone for human sins. If Kenny's report is accurate, it is likely that we have here not a reference to Jesus but rather an allusion to the long-standing Delaware belief that the creator could be addressed only through intermediaries. This report may reflect either an early stage in Neolin's thought or offer evidence of later modification of his teachings to accommodate traditionalist ideas about the Lenape's relationship to the creator.
110. M'Culloch, "Narrative of the Captivity," 273-76; Kenny, "Journal," 188. It should also be noted that a teaching attributed to Neolin in one report from a Euro-American trader, unconfirmed indeed contradicted in other sources, has erroneously been interpreted as an example of Christian influence. According to James Kenny, cited above, Neolin told his followers that they could not address the creator directly, but must pray instead to "the little god." Some scholars have identified 'the little god" with Jesus Christ. But there is nothing in Kenny's report to suggest that Neolin was speaking of a Messiah, savior or human son of the creator, or of a being that suffered to atone for human sins. If Kenny's report is accurate, it is likely that we have here not a reference to Jesus but rather an allusion to the long-standing Delaware belief that the creator could be addressed only through intermediaries. This report may reflect either an early stage in Neolin's thought or offer evidence of later modification of his teachings to accommodate traditionalist ideas about the Lenape's relationship to the creator.
111. White, The Middle Ground, 283.
112. Kenny, "Journal," 188.
113. Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 2.
114. Ian K. Steele, Warpaths (New York, 1994), 246.
115. Quoted in James Mooney, The Ghost Dance Religion and Wounded Knee (1896; New York, 1973), 296.