Pathological Evaluation of Sentinel Lymph Nodes

Surgical Oncology Clinics of North America

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 17-34

  Cserni, Gábor ^a  

^a BÁCS KISKUN COUNTY TEACHING HOSPITAL   (Hungary)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER STAGING; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LYMPH NODE METASTASIS; REVIEW; SENTINEL LYMPH NODE; SOLID TUMOR;

ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM; BREAST NEOPLASMS; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; FEMALE; HUMANS; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; LYMPH NODES; LYMPHATIC METASTASIS; MELANOCYTES; MELANOMA; NEOPLASM PROTEINS; NEOPLASM STAGING; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; SENTINEL LYMPH NODE BIOPSY;

EID: 33847337398     PISSN: 10553207     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.soc.2006.10.002     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Tanis P.J., Nieweg O.E., Merkus J.W., et al. False negative sentinel node procedure established through palpation of the biopsy wound. Eur J Surg Oncol 26 7 (2000) 714-715
2. Kett K., Varga G., and Lukacs L. Direct lymphography of the breast. Lymphology 3 1 (1970) 2-12
3. Giuliano A.E., Dale P.S., Turner R.R., et al. Improved axillary staging of breast cancer with sentinel lymphadenectomy. Ann Surg 222 3 (1995) 394-401
4. Cserni G. Surgical pathological staging of breast cancer by sentinel lymph node biopsy with special emphasis on the histological work-up of axillary sentinel lymph nodes. Breast Cancer 11 3 (2004) 242-249
5. Torrenga H., Rahusen F.D., Meijer S., et al. Sentinel node investigation in breast cancer: detailed analysis of the yield from step sectioning and immunohistochemistry. J Clin Pathol 54 7 (2001) 550-552
6. Cserni G. Complete sectioning of axillary sentinel nodes in patients with breast cancer. Analysis of two different step sectioning and immunohistochemistry protocols in 246 patients. J Clin Pathol 55 12 (2002) 926-931
7. In: Sobin L.H., and Wittekind C. (Eds). UICC TNM classification of malignant tumours. 6th edition (2002), John Wiley and Sons, New York
8. In: Greene F.L., Page D.L., Fritz A.G., et al. (Eds). AJCC cancer staging manual. 6th edition (2002), Springer Verlag, New York 155-181
9. Schwartz GF, Giuliano AE, Veronesi U; Consensus Conference Committee. Proceedings of the consensus conference on the role of sentinel lymph node biopsy in carcinoma of the breast, April 19-22, 2001, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Cancer 2002;94(10);2542-51.
10. Viale G., Maiorano E., Mazzarol G., et al. Histologic detection and clinical implications of micrometastases in axillary sentinel lymph nodes for patients with breast carcinoma. Cancer 92 6 (2001) 1378-1384
11. Cserni G. Metastases in axillary sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer as detected by intensive histopathological work up. J Clin Pathol 52 12 (1999) 922-924
12. Cserni G., Amendoeira I., Apostolikas N., et al. Pathological work-up of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer. Review of current data to be considered for the formulation of guidelines. Eur J Cancer 39 12 (2003) 1654-1667
13. Cserni G., Amendoeira I., Apostolikas N., et al. Discrepancies in current practice of pathological evaluation of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer. Results of a questionnaire based survey by the European Working Group for Breast Screening Pathology. J Clin Pathol 57 7 (2004) 695-701
14. Viale G., Mastropasqua M.G., Maiorano E., et al. Pathologic examination of the axillary sentinel lymph nodes in patients with early-stage breast carcinoma: current and resolving controversies on the basis of the European Institute of Oncology experience. Virchows Arch 448 3 (2006) 241-247
15. Kuehn T., Bembenek A., Decker T., et al. A concept for the clinical implementation of sentinel lymph node biopsy in patients with breast carcinoma with special regard to quality assurance. Cancer 103 3 (2005) 451-461
16. Vinh-Hung V., Burzykowski T., Cserni G., et al. Functional form of the effect of the numbers of axillary nodes on survival in early breast cancer. Int J Oncol 22 3 (2003) 697-704
17. Degnim A.C., Griffith K.A., Sabel M.S., et al. Clinicopathologic features of metastasis in nonsentinel lymph nodes of breast carcinoma patients. Cancer 98 11 (2003) 2307-2315
18. Dowlatshahi K., Fan M., Snider H.C., et al. Lymph node micrometastases from breast carcinoma: reviewing the dilemma. Cancer 80 7 (1997) 1188-1197
19. Millis R.R., Springall R., Lee A.H., et al. Occult axillary lymph node metastases are of no prognostic significance in breast cancer. Br J Cancer 86 3 (2002) 396-401
20. Cserni G., Gregori D., Merletti F., et al. Meta-analysis of non-sentinel node metastases associated with micrometastatic sentinel nodes in breast cancer. Br J Surg 91 10 (2004) 1245-1252
21. Viale G., Maiorano E., Pruneri G., et al. Predicting the risk for additional axillary metastases in patients with breast carcinoma and positive sentinel lymph node biopsy. Ann Surg 241 2 (2005) 319-325
22. Cserni G., Bianchi S., Vezzosi V., et al. The value of cytokeratin immunohistochemistry in the evaluation of axillary sentinel lymph nodes in patients with lobular breast carcinoma. J Clin Pathol 59 5 (2006) 518-522
23. Cserni G., Bianchi S., Boecker W., et al. Improving the reproducibility of diagnosing micrometastases and isolated tumor cells. Cancer 103 2 (2005) 358-367
24. Cserni G., Sapino A., and Decker T. Discriminating between micrometastases and isolated tumor cells in a regional and institutional setting. Breast 15 3 (2006) 347-354
25. Cserni G. A model for determining the optimum histology of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer. J Clin Pathol 57 5 (2004) 467-471
26. Cserni G. Evaluation of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer. Histopathology 46 6 (2005) 697-702
27. In: Perry N., Broeders M., and de Wolf C. (Eds). European guidelines for quality assurance of breast cancer screening and diagnosis. 4th edition (2001), European Communities, Luxemburg
28. Cserni G. Histopathological examination of the sentinel lymph nodes. Review of the identically titled presentation at the 3rd Congress of the World Society for Breast Health and the 5th Biennial Meeting of the Asian Breast Cancer Society (Tokyo, 21-23 April, 2005). Breast J 2006;12(Suppl 2):S152-6.
29. Bold R.J. Standardization of sentinel lymph node biopsy in breast carcinoma. Cancer 103 3 (2005) 444-446
30. Ellis IO, Pinder SE, Bobrow L, et al. Pathology reporting of breast disease. Available at: http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/breastscreen/publications/nhsbsp58-low-resolution.pdf. Accessed November 11, 2006.
31. Silverstein M.J., Lagios M.D., Recht A., et al. Image-detected breast cancer: state of the art diagnosis and treatment. J Am Coll Surg 201 4 (2005) 586-597
32. Österreichische Gesellschaft fur Pathologie. Sentinel. Available at: http://www.pathology.at/sentinel.htm. Accessed May 24, 2006.
33. Australian Cancer Network, Breast Pathology Working Party. The pathology reporting of breast cancer. A guide for pathologists, surgeons, radiologists and oncologists. Recommendations of the Australian Cancer Network Working Party. 2nd edition, ACN Publication No. 7. Sydney (Australia): Australian Cancer Network, 2001.
34. Linden M.D., and Zarbo R.J. Cytokeratin immunostaining patterns of benign, reactive lymph nodes: applications for the evaluation of sentinel lymph node specimen. Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol 9 4 (2001) 297-301
35. Xu X., Roberts S.A., Pasha T.L., et al. Undesirable cytokeratin immunoreactivity of native nonepithelial cells in sentinel lymph nodes from patients with breast carcinoma. Arch Pathol Lab Med 124 9 (2000) 1310-1313
36. Maiorano E., Mazzarol G.M., Pruneri G., et al. Ectopic breast tissue as a possible cause of false-positive axillary sentinel lymph node biopsies. Am J Surg Pathol 27 4 (2003) 513-518
37. Moonim M.T., Herbert A., and Lucas S.B. Benign metastasizing mesothelial cells in an axillary lymph node secondary to a chest wall fibromatosis. Histopathology 48 2 (2006) 303-305
38. Nga M.E., and Putti T.C. Glandular structures in an intraoperative axillary sentinel lymph node biopsy: a diagnostic dilemma. Histopathology 48 4 (2006) 475-477
39. Cserni G. Mapping metastases in sentinel lymph nodes of breast cancer. Am J Clin Pathol 113 3 (2000) 351-354
40. Diaz L.K., Hunt K., Ames F., et al. Histologic localization of sentinel lymph node metastases in breast cancer. Am J Surg Pathol 27 3 (2003) 385-389
41. Weigelt B., Verduijn P., Bosma A.J., et al. Detection of metastases in sentinel lymph nodes of breast cancer patients by multiple mRNA markers. Br J Cancer 90 8 (2004) 1531-1537
42. Sakaguchi M., Virmani A., Dudak M.W., et al. Clinical relevance of reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction for the detection of axillary lymph node metastases in breast cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 10 2 (2003) 117-125
43. Gillanders W.E., Mikhitarian K., Hebert R., et al. Molecular detection of micrometastatic breast cancer in histopathology-negative axillary lymph nodes correlates with traditional predictors of prognosis: an interim analysis of a prospective multi-institutional cohort study. Ann Surg 239 6 (2004) 828-840
44. Turner R.R., Hansen N.M., Stern S.L., et al. Intraoperative examination of the sentinel lymph node for breast carcinoma staging. Am J Clin Pathol 112 5 (1999) 627-634
45. Brogi E., Torres-Matundan E., Tan L.K., et al. The results of frozen section, touch preparation, and cytological smear are comparable for intraoperative examination of sentinel lymph nodes: a study in 133 breast cancer patients. Ann Surg Oncol 12 2 (2005) 173-180
46. Richter T., Nahrig J., Komminoth P., et al. Protocol for ultrarapid immunostaining of frozen sections. J Clin Pathol 52 6 (1999) 461-463
47. Salem A.A., Douglas-Jones A.G., Sweetland H.M., et al. Intraoperative evaluation of axillary sentinel lymph nodes using touch imprint cytology and immunohistochemistry: I. Protocol of rapid immunostaining of touch imprints. Eur J Surg Oncol 29 1 (2003) 25-28
48. Ku N.N. Pathologic examination of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 8 3 (1999) 469-479
49. Pogacnik A., Klopcic U., Grazio-Frkovic S., et al. The reliability and accuracy of intraoperative imprint cytology of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer. Cytopathology 16 2 (2005) 71-76
50. Cserni G. The potential value of intraoperative imprint cytology of axillary sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer patients. Am Surg 67 1 (2001) 86-91
51. Cserni G. Effect of increasing the surface sampled by imprint cytology on the intraoperative assessment of axillary sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer patients. Am Surg 69 5 (2003) 419-423
52. Tew K., Irwig L., Matthews A., et al. Meta-analysis of sentinel node imprint cytology in breast cancer. Br J Surg 92 9 (2005) 1068-1080
53. Hughes S.J., Xi L., Raja S., et al. A rapid, fully automated, molecular-based assay accurately analyzes sentinel lymph nodes for the presence of metastatic breast cancer. Ann Surg 243 3 (2006) 389-398
54. Gershenwald J.E., Thompson W., Mansfield P.F., et al. Multi-institutional melanoma lymphatic mapping experience: the prognostic value of sentinel lymph node status in 612 stage I or II melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol 17 3 (1999) 976-983
55. Cibull M.L. Handling sentinel lymph node biopsy specimens. A work in progress. Arch Pathol Lab Med 123 7 (1999) 620-621
56. Cochran A.J., Balda B.R., Starz H., et al. The Augsburg Consensus. Techniques of lymphatic mapping, sentinel lymphadenectomy, and completion lymphadenectomy in cutaneous malignancies. Cancer 89 2 (2000) 236-241
57. Carson K.F., Wen D.R., Li P.X., et al. Nodal nevi and cutaneous melanoma. Am J Surg Pathol 20 7 (1996) 834-840
58. Fontaine D., Parkhill W., Greer W., et al. Nevus cells in lymph nodes: an association with congenital cutaneous nevi. Am J Dermatopathol 24 1 (2002) 1-5
59. Kelley S.W., and Cockerell C.J. Sentinel lymph node biopsy as an adjunct to management of histologically difficult to diagnose melanocytic lesions: a proposal. J Am Acad Dermatol 42 3 (2000) 527-530
60. Lohmann C.M., Coit D.G., Brady M.S., et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in patients with diagnostically controversial spitzoid melanocytic tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 26 1 (2002) 47-55
61. Bautista N.C., Cohen S., and Anders K.H. Benign melanocytic navus cells in axillary lymph nodes. A prospective incidence and immunohistochemical study with literature review. Am J Clin Pathol 102 1 (1994) 102-108
62. Yu L.L., Flotte T.J., Tanabe K.K., et al. Detection of microscopic melanoma metastases in sentinel lymph nodes. Cancer 86 4 (1999) 617-627
63. Cserni G. Misidentification of an axillary sentinel lymph node due to anthracosis. Eur J Surg Oncol 24 3 (1998) 168
64. Moehrle M.W., Blaheta H.J., and Ruck P. Tattoo pigment mimics positive sentinel lymph node in melanoma. Dermatology 203 4 (2001) 342-344
65. Haigh P.I., Lucci A., Turner R.R., et al. Carbon dye histologically confirms the identity of sentinel nodes in cutaneous melanoma. Cancer 92 3 (2001) 535-541
66. van Diest P.J., Peterse H.L., Borgstein P.J., et al. Pathological investigation of sentinel lymph nodes. Eur J Nucl Med 26 4 Suppl (1999) S43-S49
67. Frisman DM. Immunoquery. Available at: http://www.ipox.org/index.cfm. Accessed April 30, 2006.
68. Shidham V.B., Qi D.Y., Acker S., et al. Evaluation of micrometastases in sentinel lymph nodes of cutaneous melanoma: higher diagnostic accuracy with Melan-A and MART-1 compared with S-100 protein and HMB-45. Am J Surg Pathol 25 8 (2001) 1039-1046
69. Jarrett P., Thomson W., and MacKie R.M. Immunohistochemistry and sentinel node biopsy in melanoma: the use of tyrosinase and Melan-A. Br J Dermatol 141 2 (1999) 361-362
70. Bostick P.J., Morton D.L., Turner R.R., et al. Prognostic significance of occult metastases detected by sentinel lymphadenectomy and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction in early-stage melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol 17 10 (1999) 3238-3244
71. Blaheta H.J., Paul T., Sotlar K., et al. Detection of melanoma cells in sentinel lymph nodes, bone marrow and peripheral blood by a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay in patients with primary cutaneous melanoma: association with Breslow's tumour thickness. Br J Dermatol 145 2 (2001) 195-202
72. Blaheta H.J., Ellwanger U., Schittek B., et al. Examination of regional lymph nodes by sentinel node biopsy and molecular analysis provides new staging facilities in primary cutaneous melanoma. J Invest Dermatol 114 4 (2000) 637-642
73. Palmieri G., Ascierto P.A., Cossu A., et al. Detection of occult melanoma cells in paraffin-embedded histologically negative sentinel lymph nodes using a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay. J Clin Oncol 19 5 (2001) 1437-1443
74. Cochran A.J. Surgical pathology remains pivotal in the evaluation of sentinel lymph nodes. Am J Surg Pathol 23 10 (1999) 1169-1172
75. Gibbs J.F., Huang P.P., Zhang P.J., et al. Accuracy of pathologic techniques for the diagnosis of metastatic melanoma in sentinel lymph nodes. Ann Surg Oncol 6 7 (1999) 699-704
76. Koopal S.A., Tiebosch A.T., Albertus Piers D., et al. Frozen section analysis of sentinel lymph nodes in melanoma patients. Cancer 89 8 (2000) 1720-1725
77. Stojadinovic A., Allen P.J., Clary B.M., et al. Value of frozen-section analysis of sentinel lymph nodes for primary cutaneous malignant melanoma. Ann Surg 235 1 (2002) 92-98
78. Creager A.J., Shiver S.A., Shen P., et al. Intraoperative evaluation of sentinel lymph nodes for metastatic melanoma by imprint cytology. Cancer 94 11 (2002) 3016-3022
79. Allen P.J., Busam K., Hill A.D., et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of sentinel lymph nodes from patients with Merkel cell carcinoma. Cancer 92 6 (2001) 1650-1655
80. Bilchik A.J., Giuliano A., Essner R., et al. Universal application of intraoperative lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy in solid neoplasms. Cancer J Sci Am 4 6 (1998) 351-358
81. Saha S., Wiese D., Badin J., et al. Technical details of sentinel lymph node mapping in colorectal cancer and its impact on staging. Ann Surg Oncol 7 2 (2000) 120-124
82. Hammond M.E., Fitzgibbons P.L., Compton C.C., et al. College of American Pathologists Conference XXXV: solid tumor prognostic factors-which, how and so what? Summary document and recommendations for implementation. Arch Pathol Lab Med 124 7 (2000) 958-965
83. Cserni G. Nodal staging of colorectal carcinomas and sentinel nodes. J Clin Pathol 56 5 (2003) 327-335
84. Tsioulias G.J., Wood T.F., Morton D.L., et al. Lymphatic mapping and focused analysis of sentinel lymph nodes upstage gastrointestinal neoplasms. Arch Surg 135 8 (2000) 926-932
85. Wiese D.A., Saha S., Badin J., et al. Pathologic evaluation of sentinel lymph nodes in colorectal carcinoma. Arch Pathol Lab Med 124 12 (2000) 1759-1763
86. Waters G.S., Geisinger K.R., Garske D.D., et al. Sentinel lymph node mapping for carcinoma of the colon: a pilot study. Am Surg 66 10 (2000) 943-945
87. Turner R.R., Nora D.T., Trocha S.D., et al. Colorectal carcinoma nodal staging. Frequency and nature of cytokeratin-positive cells in sentinel and nonsentinel lymph nodes. Arch Pathol Lab Med 127 6 (2003) 673-679
88. Peley G., Farkas E., Sinkovics I., et al. Inguinal sentinel lymph node biopsy for staging anal cancer. Scand J Surg 91 4 (2002) 336-338
89. Liptay M.J., Grondin S.C., Fry W.A., et al. Intraoperative sentinel lymph node mapping in non-small-cell lung cancer improves detection of micrometastases. J Clin Oncol 20 8 (2002) 1984-1988
90. Wawroschek F., Vogt H., Wengenmair H., et al. Prostate lymphoscintigraphy and radio-guided surgery for sentinel lymph node identification in prostate cancer. Technique and results of the first 350 cases. Urol Int 70 4 (2003) 303-310
91. Haas C.J., Wagner T., Wawroschek F., et al. Combined application of RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry on paraffin embedded sentinel lymph nodes of prostate cancer patients. Pathol Res Pract 200 11-12 (2005) 763-770
92. Pelosi E., Arena V., Baudino B., et al. Pre-operative lymphatic mapping and intra-operative sentinel lymph node detection in early stage endometrial cancer. Nucl Med Commun 24 9 (2003) 971-975
93. Civantos F.J., Gomez C., Duque C., et al. Sentinel node biopsy in oral cavity cancer: correlation with PET scan and immunohistochemistry. Head Neck 25 1 (2003) 1-9
94. Wiseman S.M., Hicks Jr. W.L., Chu Q.D., et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in staging of differentiated thyroid cancer: a critical review. Surg Oncol 11 3 (2002) 137-142
95. International Union Against Cancer. TNM - History. Available at: http://www.uicc.org. Accessed November 25, 2006.
96. Weaver D.L. Sentinel lymph nodes and breast carcinoma: which micrometastases are clinically significant?. Am J Surg Pathol 27 6 (2003) 842-845
97. Feinstein A.R., Sosin D.M., and Wells C.K. The Will Rogers phenomenon. Stage migration and new diagnostic techniques as a source of misleading statistics for survival in cancer. N Engl J Med 312 25 (1985) 1604-1608
98. Hermanek P., Hutter R.V., Sobin L.H., et al. International Union Against Cancer. Classification of isolated tumor cells and micrometastasis. Cancer 86 12 (1999) 2668-2673
99. Singletary S.E., Greene F.L., and Sobin L.H. Classification of isolated tumor cells: clarification of the 6th edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Manual. Cancer 98 12 (2003) 2740-2741
100. Singletary S.E., Allred C., Ashley P., et al. Staging system for breast cancer: revisions for the 6th edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. Surg Clin North Am 83 4 (2003) 803-819
101. Duraker N., and Caynak Z.C. Prognostic value of the 2002 TNM classification for breast carcinoma with regard to the number of metastatic axillary lymph nodes. Cancer 104 4 (2005) 700-707
102. Burke H.B. Outcome prediction and the future of the TNM staging system. J Natl Cancer Inst 96 19 (2004) 1408-1409
103. O'Connell J.B., Maggard M.A., and Ko C.Y. Colon cancer survival rates with the new American Joint Committee on Cancer sixth edition staging. J Natl Cancer Inst 96 19 (2004) 1420-1425
104. Verschraegen C., Vinh-Hung V., Cserni G., et al. Modeling the effect of tumor size in early breast cancer. Ann Surg 241 2 (2005) 309-318
105. Morrow M. What is the purpose of cancer staging?. Breast 15 1 (2006) 1-2
106. Cserni G. The potential therapeutic effect of sentinel lymphadenectomy. Eur J Surg Oncol 28 7 (2002) 689-691