Pathophysiology of cervical myelopathy

Spine Journal

Volumn 6, Issue 6 SUPPL., 2006, Pages

  Baptiste, Darryl C ^a   Fehlings, Michael G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HEALTH NETWORK   (Canada)

Author keywords

Apoptosis; Cervical myelopathy; Ischemia; Ossification of the longitudinal ligament; Spinal cord injury; Spondylosis; Stenosis

Indexed keywords

BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN 2; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

ANIMAL MODEL; APOPTOSIS; AXONAL INJURY; CERVICAL MYELOPATHY; CERVICAL SPINAL CORD INJURY; ENCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION; EXCITOTOXICITY; GLIA CELL; HUMAN; INTERVERTEBRAL DISK DEGENERATION; LIGAMENT CALCINOSIS; LIGAMENTUM FLAVUM; NERVE CELL LESION; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NERVE ROOT COMPRESSION; NONHUMAN; OLIGODENDROGLIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTERIOR LONGITUDINAL LIGAMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD BLOOD FLOW; SPINAL CORD COMPRESSION; SPINAL CORD ISCHEMIA; SPONDYLOSIS; VERTEBRAL CANAL STENOSIS;

APOPTOSIS; CERVICAL VERTEBRAE; HUMANS; ISCHEMIA; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MYELOGRAPHY; NEUROTOXINS; SPINAL CORD; SPINAL CORD DISEASES; SPINAL DISEASES; STRESS, MECHANICAL; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 33751120151     PISSN: 15299430     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2006.04.024     Document Type: Review

References (72)

1. Fehlings M.G., and Skaf G. A review of the pathophysiology of cervical spondylotic myelopathy with insights for potential novel mechanisms drawn from traumatic spinal cord injury. Spine 23 (1998) 2730-2737
2. Stookey B. Comparison of the spinal cord due to ventral extradural cervical chondromas. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 20 (1928) 275-291
3. Carette S., and Fehlings M.G. Clinical practice. Cervical radiculopathy. N Engl J Med 353 (2005) 392-399
4. Takayama H., Muratsu H., Doita M., Harada T., Kurosaka M., and Yoshiya S. Proprioceptive recovery of patients with cervical myelopathy after surgical decompression. Spine 30 (2005) 1039-1044
5. Rao R. Neck pain, cervical radiculopathy, and cervical myelopathy: pathophysiology, natural history. clinical evaluation. J Bone Joint Surg Am 84-A (2002) 1872-1881
6. Sekhon L.H., and Fehlings M.G. Epidemiology, demographics, and pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury. Spine 26 (2001) S2-S12
7. Mercer S., and Bogduk N. The ligaments and annulus fibrosus of human adult cervical intervertebral discs. Spine 24 (1999) 619-626 discussion 627-8
8. Scott J.E., Bosworth T.R., Cribb A.M., and Taylor J.R. The chemical morphology of age-related changes in human intervertebral disc glycosaminoglycans from cervical, thoracic and lumbar nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus. J Anat 184 Pt 1 (1994) 73-82
9. Muthukumar N. Ossification of the ligamentum flavum as a result of fluorosis causing myelopathy: report of two cases. Neurosurgery 56 (2005) E622; discussion E622
10. Kuhlman K.A. Cervical range of motion in the elderly. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74 (1993) 1071-1079
11. Mihara H., Ohnari K., Hachiya M., Kondo S., and Yamada K. Cervical myelopathy caused by C3-C4 spondylosis in elderly patients: a radiographic analysis of pathogenesis. Spine 25 (2000) 796-800
12. Firooznia H., Benjamin V.M., Pinto R.S., et al. Calcification and ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament of spine: its role in secondary narrowing of spinal canal and cord compression. N Y State J Med 82 (1982) 1193-1198
13. Okawa A., Nakamura I., Goto S., Moriya H., Nakamura Y., and Ikegawa S. Mutation in NPPS in a mouse model of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine. Nat Genet 19 (1998) 271-273
14. Nakamura I., Ikegawa S., Okawa A., et al. Association of the human NPPS gene with ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine (OPLL). Hum Genet 104 (1999) 492-497
15. Koshizuka Y., Kawaguchi H., Ogata N., et al. Nucleotide pyrophosphatase gene polymorphism associated with ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine. J Bone Miner Res 17 (2002) 138-144
16. Okano T., Ishidou Y., Kato M., et al. Orthotopic ossification of the spinal ligaments of Zucker fatty rats: a possible animal model for ossification of the human posterior longitudinal ligament. J Orthop Res 15 (1997) 820-829
17. Huang T.J., Hsu R.W., Liao Y.S., Shih H.N., and Chen Y.J. A rare neurological presentation due to ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the thoracic spine and ankylosing spondylitis: case report. Spinal Cord 35 (1997) 550-553
18. Trojan D.A., Pouchot J., Pokrupa R., et al. Diagnosis and treatment of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine: report of eight cases and literature review. Am J Med 92 (1992) 296-306
19. Sampson H.W. Spondyloarthropathy in progressive ankylosis (ank/ank) mice: morphological features. Spine 13 (1988) 645-649
20. Sampson H.W., Davis R.W., and Dufner D.C. Spondyloarthropathy in progressive ankylosis mice: ultrastructural features of the intervertebral disk. Acta Anat (Basel) 141 (1991) 36-41
21. Mahowald M.L., Krug H., and Halverson P. Progressive ankylosis (ank/ank) in mice: an animal model of spondyloarthropathy. II. Light and electron microscopic findings. J Rheumatol 16 (1989) 60-66
22. Mori K., Chano T., Ikeda T., et al. Decrease in serum nucleotide pyrophosphatase activity in ankylosing spondylitis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 42 (2003) 62-65
23. Mak K.H., Mak K.L., and Gwi-Mak E. Ossification of the ligamentum flavum in the cervicothoracic junction: case report on ossification found on both sides of the lamina. Spine 27 (2002) E11-E14
24. Nadkarni T.D., Menon R.K., Desai K.I., and Goel A. Ossified ligamentum flavum of the atlantoaxial region. J Clin Neurosci 12 (2005) 486-489
25. Shenoi R.M., Duong T.T., Brega K.E., and Gaido L.B. Ossification of the ligamentum flavum causing thoracic myelopathy: a case report. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 76 (1997) 68-72
26. Yamashita Y., Takahashi M., Matsuno Y., et al. Spinal cord compression due to ossification of ligaments: MR imaging. Radiology 175 (1990) 843-848
27. van Oostenbrugge R.J., Herpers M.J., and de Kruijk J.R. Spinal cord compression caused by unusual location and extension of ossified ligamenta flava in a Caucasian male. A case report and literature review. Spine 24 (1999) 486-488
28. Pascal-Mousselard H., Smadja D., Cabre P., Raynaud M., and Catonne Y. Ossification of the ligamenta flava with severe myelopathy in a black patient. A case report. Spine 23 (1998) 1607-1608
29. Pascal-Moussellard H., Cabre P., Smadja D., and Catonne Y. Symptomatic ossification of the ligamentum flavum: a clinical series from the French Antilles. Spine 30 (2005) E400-E405
30. Vasudevan A., and Knuckey N.W. Ossification of the ligamentum flavum. J Clin Neurosci 9 (2002) 311-313
31. Ono K., Yonenobu K., Miyamoto S., and Okada K. Pathology of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament and ligamentum flavum. Clin Orthop Relat Res 359 (1999) 18-26
32. Maigne J.Y., Ayral X., and Guerin-Surville H. Frequency and size of ossifications in the caudal attachments of the ligamentum flavum of the thoracic spine: role of rotatory strains in their development. An anatomic study of 121 spines. Surg Radiol Anat 14 (1992) 119-124
33. Cabre P., Pascal-Moussellard H., Kaidomar S., et al. Six cases of cervical ligamentum flavum calcification in Blacks in the French West Indies. Joint Bone Spine 68 (2001) 158-165
34. Imai S., and Hukuda S. Cervical radiculomyelopathy due to deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals in the ligamentum flavum: historical and histological evaluation of attendant inflammation. J Spinal Disord 7 (1994) 513-517
35. Baba H., Maezawa Y., Kawahara N., Tomita K., Furusawa N., and Imura S. Calcium crystal deposition in the ligamentum flavum of the cervical spine. Spine 18 (1993) 2174-2181
36. Nagashima C., Takahama M., Shibata T., et al. Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposits in the cervical ligamenta flava causing myeloradiculopathy. J Neurosurg 60 (1984) 69-80
37. Penning L. Some aspects of plain radiography of the cervical spine in chronic myelopathy. Neurology 12 (1962) 513-519
38. Murone I. The importance of the sagittal diameters of the cervical spinal canal in relation to spondylosis and myelopathy. J Bone Joint Surg Br 56 (1974) 30-36
39. Wolf B.S., Khilnani M., and Malis L. The sagittal diameter of the bony cervical spinal canal and its significance in cervical spondylosis. J Mt Sinai Hosp N Y 23 (1956) 283-292
40. Dichiro G., and Fisher R.L. Contrast radiography of the spinal cord. Arch Neurol 11 (1964) 125-143
41. Arnold Jr. J.G. The clinical manifestations of spondylochondrosis (spondylosis) of the cervical spine. Ann Surg 141 (1955) 872-889
42. Hayashi H., Okada K., Hamada M., Tada K., and Ueno R. Etiologic factors of myelopathy: a radiographic evaluation of the aging changes in the cervical spine. Clin Orthop Relat Res 214 (1987) 200-209
43. Henderson F.C., Geddes J.F., Vaccaro A.R., Woodard E., Berry K.J., and Benzel E.C. Stretch-associated injury in cervical spondylotic myelopathy: new concept and review. Neurosurgery 56 (2005) 1101-1113
44. Chen I.H., Vasavada A., and Panjabi M.M. Kinematics of the cervical spine canal: changes with sagittal plane loads. J Spinal Disord 7 (1994) 93-101
45. Chen C.J., Hsu H.L., Niu C.C., et al. Cervical degenerative disease at flexion-extension MR imaging: prediction criteria. Radiology 227 (2003) 136-142
46. Breig A. Overstretching of and circumscribed pathological tension in the spinal cord-a basic cause of symptoms in cord disorders. J Biomech 3 (1970) 7-9
47. Breig A., Turnbull I., and Hassler O. Effects of mechanical stresses on the spinal cord in cervical spondylosis: a study on fresh cadaver material. J Neurosurg 25 (1966) 45-56
48. Bilston L.E., and Thibault L.E. The mechanical properties of the human cervical spinal cord in vitro. Ann Biomed Eng 24 (1996) 67-74
49. Shi R., and Pryor J.D. Pathological changes of isolated spinal cord axons in response to mechanical stretch. Neuroscience 110 (2002) 765-777
50. Hashizume Y., Iijima S., Kishimoto H., and Yanagi T. Pathology of spinal cord lesions caused by ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 63 (1984) 123-130
51. Crowe M.J., Bresnahan J.C., Shuman S.L., Masters J.N., and Beattie M.S. Apoptosis and delayed degeneration after spinal cord injury in rats and monkeys. Nat Med 3 (1997) 73-76
52. Vick R.S., Neuberger T.J., and DeVries G.H. Role of adult oligodendrocytes in remyelination after neural injury. J Neurotrauma 9 Suppl 1 (1992) S93-S103
53. Keirstead H.S., and Blakemore W.F. The role of oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitors in CNS remyelination. Adv Exp Med Biol 468 (1999) 183-197
54. Shuman S.L., Bresnahan J.C., and Beattie M.S. Apoptosis of microglia and oligodendrocytes after spinal cord contusion in rats. J Neurosci Res 50 (1997) 798-808
55. Li Y., Field P.M., and Raisman G. Death of oligodendrocytes and microglial phagocytosis of myelin precede immigration of Schwann cells into the spinal cord. J Neurocytol 28 (1999) 417-427
56. Park E., Velumian A.A., and Fehlings M.G. The role of excitotoxicity in secondary mechanisms of spinal cord injury: a review with an emphasis on the implications for white matter degeneration. J Neurotrauma 21 (2004) 754-774
57. Crum B., Mokri B., and Fulgham J. Spinal manifestations of vertebral artery dissection. Neurology 55 (2000) 304-306
58. Brain W.R. Discussion on rupture of the intervertebral disc in the cervical region. Proc R Soc Med 41 (1948) 509-511
59. Mair W.G., and Druckman R. The pathology of spinal cord lesions and their relation to the clinical features in protrusion of cervical intervertebral discs; a report of four cases. Brain 76 (1953) 70-91
60. Taylor A.R. Mechanism and treatment of spinal-cord disorders associated with cervical spondylosis. Lancet 1 (1953) 717-720
61. Hukuda S., and Wilson C.B. Experimental cervical myelopathy: effects of compression and ischemia on the canine cervical cord. J Neurosurg 37 (1972) 631-652
62. Pathak M., Kim R.C., and Pribram H. Spinal cord infarction following vertebral angiography: clinical and pathological findings. J Spinal Cord Med 23 (2000) 92-95
63. Gooding M.R., Wilson C.B., and Hoff J.T. Experimental cervical myelopathy: autoradiographic studies of spinal cord blood flow patterns. Surg Neurol 5 (1976) 233-239
64. Doppman J.L. The mechanism of ischemia in anteroposterior compression of the spinal cord. Invest Radiol 10 (1975) 543-551
65. Emery E., Aldana P., Bunge M.B., et al. Apoptosis after traumatic human spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 89 (1998) 911-920
66. Park E., Liu Y., and Fehlings M.G. Changes in glial cell white matter AMPA receptor expression after spinal cord injury and relationship to apoptotic cell death. Exp Neurol 182 (2003) 35-48
67. Li G.L., Brodin G., Farooque M., et al. Apoptosis and expression of Bcl-2 after compression trauma to rat spinal cord. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 55 (1996) 280-289
68. Yamaura I., Yone K., Nakahara S., et al. Mechanism of destructive pathologic changes in the spinal cord under chronic mechanical compression. Spine 27 (2002) 21-26
69. Blight A.R. Delayed demyelination and macrophage invasion: a candidate for secondary cell damage in spinal cord injury. Cent Nerv Syst Trauma 2 (1985) 299-315
70. Bunge R.P., Puckett W.R., Becerra J.L., Marcillo A., and Quencer R.M. Observations on the pathology of human spinal cord injury: a review and classification of 22 new cases with details from a case of chronic cord compression with extensive focal demyelination. Adv Neurol 59 (1993) 75-89
71. Pfeiffer S.E., Warrington A.E., and Bansal R. The oligodendrocyte and its many cellular processes. Trends Cell Biol 3 (1993) 191-197
72. Kim D.H., Vaccaro A.R., Henderson F.C., and Benzel E.C. Molecular biology of cervical myelopathy and spinal cord injury: role of oligodendrocyte apoptosis. Spine J 3 (2003) 510-519