Cell wall deficient forms of mycobacteria: A review

Veterinarni Medicina

Volumn 51, Issue 7, 2006, Pages 365-389

  Beran, V ^a   Havelkova, M ^b   Kaustova, J ^c   Dvorska, L ^a   Pavlik, Ivo ^a  

^a VETERINARY RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Czech Republic)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (Czech Republic)

^c Zdravotniho ustavu se sidlem v Ostrave   (Czech Republic)

Author keywords

Antituberculotics; Basilar tuberculosis; Food safety; Intestine; Johne's disease; Lymph node; Mycobacterium avium complex; Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex; protoplasts; Respiratory tract; Reversion; Skin tuberculosis; Zoonoses

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); CORYNEBACTERINEAE; MYCOBACTERIUM;

EID: 33746710924     PISSN: 03758427     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.17221/5557-VETMED     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. Adamek L., Mison P., Mohelska H., Trnka L. (1969): Ultrastructural organization of spheroplasts induced in Mycobacterium sp. smegmatis by lysozyme or glycine. Archiv fur Mikrobiologie, 69, 227-236
2. Alavi H.A., Moscovic E.A. (1996): Immunolocalization of cell-wall-deficient forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in sarcoidosis and in sinus histiocytosis of lymph nodes draining carcinoma. Histology and Histopathology, 11, 683-694
3. Allan E.J., Jass J., Phillips L.E., Costerton J.W. Lappin-Scott H.M. (1992): A novel method for differentiating L-form bacteria from their parental form using the Hucker Gram staining technique. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 15, 193-196
4. Almenoff P.L., Johnson A., Lesser M., Mattman L.H. (1996): Growth of acid fast L forms from the blood of patients with sarcoidosis. Thorax, 51, 530-533
5. Avdonina L.I., Dorozhkova I.R., Gedymin L.E. (1992): Mycobacteria in the development of periodontal foci of infection (in Russian). Stomatologiia (Moskva), 3-6, 23-27
6. Avdonina L.I., Gedymin L.E., Erokhin V.V. (1993): Tuberculous periodontitis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 4-7
7. Ayele W.Y., Machackova M., Pavlik I. (2001): The transmission and impact of paratuberculosis infection in domestic and wild ruminants. Veterinarni Medicina, 46, 205-224. http://www.vri.cz/docs/vetmed/46-8-205. pdf
8. Ayele W.Y., Svastova P., Roubal P., Bartos M., Pavlik I. (2005): Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis cultured from locally and commercially pasteurized cow's milk in the Czech Republic. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71, 1210-1214
9. Baiteriakova T.I., Rubtsova I.N., Makarov I.A. (1982): Persistence of mycobacteria in cattle (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 11, 59-62
10. Balan V.F. (1991): The use of chicken embryos for the culture of L-forms of mycobacteria tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 59-60
11. Bartos M., Falkinham III J.O., Pavlik I. (2004): Mycobacterial catalases, peroxidases, and superoxide dismutase and their effects on virulence and isoniazid-susceptibility in mycobacteria. Veterinarni Medicina, 49, 161-170. http://www.vri.cz/docs/vetmed/49-5-161.pdf
12. Belsheim M.R., Darwish R.Z., Watson W.C., Schieven B. (1983): Bacterial L-form isolation from inflammatory bowel disease patients. Gastroenterology, 85, 364-369
13. Berezovskii B.A., Golanov V.S. (1981): Mycobacterium tuberculosis L-forms in patients with abacillary lung caverns (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 6, 22-25
14. Berezovskii B.A., Salobai R.Iu. (1988): The role of L variants of mycobacteria in the development and clinical course of recurrences of pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 32-35
15. Biron M.G., Soloveva I.P. (1989): Acute hematogenic generalization of tuberculosis caused by L-forms of mycobacteria (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 8, 75-76
16. Bobchenok A.P., Steklova L.N., Vishnevskaya Y.B., Melnikova N.N., Vishnevsky B.I. (2002): The detection rate and clinical and diagnostic values of L-forms of the pathogen in patients with pulmonary or extrapulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 19-21
17. Bogush L.K., Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Zhangireev A.A., Abramov E.L. (1981): L forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in chronic pleural empyema in tuberculosis patients (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 12, 19-23
18. Bondin S.V. (1992): Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of bacterial excretion in socially maladapted patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and outcomes of the process (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 3-4, 51-53
19. Brennan P.J. (1989): Structure of mycobacteria: Recent developments in defining cell wall carbohydrates and proteins. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 11, S420-S430
20. Brennan P.J., Nikaido H. (1995): The envelope of mycobacteria. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 64, 29-63
21. Brown S.T., Brett I., Almenoff P.L., Lesser M., Terrin M., Teirstein A.S. (2003): Recovery of cell wall-deficient organisms from blood does not distinguish between patients with sarcoidosis and control subjects. Chest, 123, 413-417
22. Broxmeyer L. (2004): Is mad cow disease caused by a bacteria? Medical Hypotheses, 63, 731-739
23. Brunello F., Pera A., Martini S., Marino L., Astegiano M., Barletti C., Gastaldi P., Verme G., Emanuelli G. (1991): Antibodies to Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in patients with Crohn's disease. Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 36, 1741-1745
24. Burnham W.R., Lennard-Jones J.E., Stanford J.L., Bird R.G. (1978): Mycobacteria as a possible cause of inflammatory bowel disease. Lancet, 2, 693-696
25. Bykov A.S., Kochemasova Z.N., Menshikov D.D., Tyurin V.S. (1972): Electron microscopic study of L-colonies of mycobacteria tuberculosis (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 49, 135-138
26. Cantwell A.R.Jr. (1981a): Histologic observations of variably acid-fast coccoid forms suggestive of cell wall deficient bacteria in Hodgkin's disease: a report of four cases. Growth, 45, 168-187
27. Cantwell A.R.Jr. (1981b): Variably acid-fast bacteria in a case of systemic sarcoidosis and hypodermitis sclerodermiformis. Dermatologica, 163, 239-248
28. Cantwell A.R.Jr. (1982a): Variably acid-fast bacteria in a rare case of coexistent malignant lymphoma and cutaneous sarcoid-like granulomas. International Journal of Dermatology, 21, 99-106
29. Cantwell A.R.Jr. (1982b): Histologic observations of variably acid-fast pleomorphic bacteria in systemic sarcoidosis: a report of 3 cases. Growth, 46, 113-125
30. Cantwell A.R.Jr., Rowe L., Kelso D.W. (1980): Nodular scleroderma and pleomorphic acid-fast bacteria. Archives of Dermatology, 116, 1283-1290
31. Chattman M.S., Mattman L.H., Mattman P.E. (1969): L-forms in blood cultures demonstrated by nucleic acid fluorescence. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 51, 41-50
32. Chenskikh E.P., Mazhenova S.A. (1987): Characteristics of osteoarticular tuberculosis caused by various species and L forms of mycobacteria (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 6, 53-55
33. Cheville N.F., Hostetter J., Thomsen B.V., Simutis F., Vanloubbeeck Y., Steadham E. (2001): Intracellular trafficing of Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis in macrophages. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift, 108, 236-242
34. Chiodini R.J., Van Kruiningen H.J., Merkal R.S. (1984a): Ruminant paratuberculosis (Johne's disease): the current status and future prospects. Cornell Veterinarian, 74, 218-262
35. Chiodini R.J., Van Kruiningen H.J., Merkal R.S., Thayer W.R., Coutu J.A. (1984b): Characteristics of an unclassified Mycobacterium species isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 20, 966-971
36. Chiodini R.J., Van Kruiningen H.J., Thayer W.R., Coutu J.A., Merkal R.S. (1984c): In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of a Mycobacterium sp. isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 26, 930-932
37. Chiodini R.J., Van Kruiningen H.J., Thayer W.R., Coutu J.A. (1986): Spheroplastic phase of mycobacteria isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 24, 357-363
38. Cirillo J.D., Falkow S., Tompkins L.S., Bermudez L.E. (1997): Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence. Infection and Immunity, 65 (9), 3759-3767
39. Cover W.H., Baerwald R.J., Levens T (1991): Investigation of osmotically stable spheroplasts from 2 strains of Escherichia coli ML-35, W7-M5. Microbios, 68 (274), 23-32
40. Csillag A. (1964): The mycococcus form of mycobacteria. Journal of General Microbiology, 34, 341-352
41. Domingue G.J., Woody H.B. (1997): Bacterial persistence and expression of disease. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 10, 320-344
42. Dorozhkova I.R., Karachiunski M.A. (1986): The significance of L-forms of mycobacteria in the clinical picture of tuberculosis. Revista de Igiena, Bacteriologie, Virusologie, Parazitologie, Epidemiologie, Pneumoftiziologie. Pneumoftiziologia, 35, 267-269
43. Dorozhkova I.R., Volk A.V. (1972a): Dihydrostreptomycin as a factor inducing L-forms in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in Russian). Antibiotiki, 17, 915-922
44. Dorozhkova I.R., Volk A.V. (1972b): Frequency of Mycobacterium tuberculosis L-form induction under the influence of cycloserine and its combinations with other drugs (in Russian). Antibiotiki, 17, 838-844
45. Dorozhkova I.R., Volk A.V. (1973a): Induction of L-forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis under the action of ethambutol, ethionamide and their combinations with some antibiotic and tuberculostatic drugs (in Russian). Antibiotiki, 18, 144-148
46. Dorozhkova I.R., Volk A.V. (1973b): Ability of rifampicin and its combinations with other drugs to induce L-forms in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in Russian). Antibiotiki, 18, 706-710
47. Dorozhkova I.R., Volk A.V. (1973c): Phases of morphogenesis of L forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, developing on exposure to antibiotics and tuberculostatic agents (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 50 (11), 12-18
48. Dorozhkova I.R., Deshchekina M.F., Eremeeva A.S., Zemskova Z.S., Iliash N.I. (1972): Congenital tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 50 (10), 80-83
49. Dorozhkova I.R., Kovalenko I.V., Nurusheva A.M. (1985): Use of the immunofluorescence technic to detect L-transformed forms of the agent of tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 11, 58-61
50. Dorozhkova I.R., Karachunskii M.A., Kiazimova L.G., Bibergal E.A. (1987): Comparative effectiveness of different methods for the microbiological study of resected pulmonary tuberculomas (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 6, 25-29
51. Dorozhkova I.R., Karachunskii M.A., Abdullaeva E.T., Gamzaeva N.F., Kochetkova E.Ia. (1989): Isolation of mycobacteria L forms as a prognostic criterion of recurrence and aggravation of tuberculosis in patients with extended residual tuberculous lesions of the lungs (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 3, 14-18
52. Dorozhkova I.R., Karachunskii M.A., Kochetkova E.Ia. (1990a): Characteristics of qualitative changes in the mycobacteria population during the treatment of middle-aged and elderly patients with newly detected pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 7-11
53. Dorozhkova I.R., Krudu V.N., Popesku T.T. (1990b): Clinical value of detection of L forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in patients with residual tuberculous changes in the lungs (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 12, 5-8
54. Dorozhkova I.R., Zemskova Z.S., Krudu V.N., Kochetkova E.Ia. (1995): Endogenous reactivation of tuberculosis as a result of reversion of persistent mycobacterial L-forms (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 3, 43-46
55. Dvorska L., Bartos M., Ostadal O., Kaustova J., Matlova L., Pavlik I. (2002): IS1311 and IS1245 restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses, serotypes, and drug susceptibilities of Mycobacterium avium complex isolates obtained from a human immunodeficiency virus-negative patient. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 40, 3712-3719
56. Dykhno M.M., Kochemasova Z.N., Kassirskaia N.G., Bakanova D.I., Albitskaia N.P. (1974): Antibody formation during immunization of animals with antigens from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, L-forms and their revertants (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 10, 28-30
57. El-Zaatari F.A.K., Naser S.A., Markesich D.C., Kalter D.C., Engstand L., Graham D.Y. (1996): Identification of Mycobacterium avium complex in sarcoidosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 34, 2240-2245
58. Ezerskii R.F., Belykh I.N., Bozhenov I.A. (1987): Significance of tuberculous infection in pediatric practice and borderline conditions in pediatric nephrology (in Russian). Pediatriia, 8, 58-60
59. Gadzhiev G.S. (1990): Characteristics of the mycobacteria in children with tuberculous meningitis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 11, 8-10
60. Gaiginschi A., Timosca S., Burcoveanu C., Alexandresco M., Petreanu V., Radu C. (1964): "L" forms obtained in a Mycobacterium exposed to the action of trichloriodopyridine (in French). Archives Roumaines de Pathologie Experimentales et de Microbiologie, 23, 467-476
61. Gerasimov V.N., Biketov S.F., Golov E.A., Potapov V.D., Bakhteeva I.V., Nikolaeva O. G. (2003): Specific features of minute structure of mycobacteria cultured in murine macrophages (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 7, 52-58
62. Goksu N., Ataoglu H., Kemaloglu Y.K., Ataoglu O., Ozsokmen D., Akyildiz N. (1996): Experimental otitis media induced by coagulase negative Staphylococcus and its L-forms. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 37, 201-216
63. Golanov V.S. (1986): Clinical significance of L-forms of mycobacteria in patients with destructive tuberculosis of the lungs (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 9, 25-28
64. Golanov V.S., Bogdalova V.E., Andreev L.P., Losin E.I., Ushakova A.G., Meshcheriakov V.G., Bondin S.V. (1991): Clinical significance of drug resistance of tuberculosis mycobacteria and L-forms (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 12, 27-28
65. Golanov V.S., Andreev L.P., Bogdalova V.E., Meshcheriakov V.G., Ushakova A.G., Bondin S.V. (1994): Characteristics of bacterial discharge in patients with different forms of pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 5, 43-45
66. Golyshevskaia V.I., Popesku T.T. (1989): Improvement of the microbiological diagnosis of tuberculosis with an account of the detection of L forms and ultrasmall mycobacteria (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 10, 38-40
67. Graham D.Y., Markesich D.C., Yoshimura H.H. (1987): Mycobacteria and inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology, 92, 436-442
68. Greenstein R.J. (2003): Is Crohn's disease caused by a Mycobacterium? Comparisons with leprosy, tuberculosis, and Johne's disease. Lancet, 3, 507-514
69. Grichko V.P., Glick B.R. (1999): The potential of L-form bacteria in biotechnology. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 77, 973-977
70. Gurenko E.G., Noreiko S.B., Prilutskaia N.V., Chistilina L.V., Oliferovskaia R.P., Lepshina S.M., Kaniuka S.B., Matvienko E.V., Makarova R.I., Taushan M.D., Serdechnyi, V.I., Goroshko, M.E., Soshenko, I.I. (1990): Bacteriological aspects of diagnosis of tuberculosis associated with pneumoconiosis (in Russian). Gigiena Truda i Profesional'nye Zabolevaniia, 8, 46-48
71. Gurevich G.L., Abramovskaia A.K., Dorozhkova I.R., Surkova L.K. (1993): Characteristics of biological properties of the causative agent in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis exposed to prolonged low-dose radiation (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 46-48
72. Hammerschmidt R. (2003): L-forms of plant pathogenic bacteria: A new means of inducing host defences? Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, 62, 251-252
73. Hammes W., Schleifer K.H., Kandler O. (1973): Mode of action of glycine on the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan. Journal of Bacteriology, 116, 1029-1053
74. Heifets L. (1996): Susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium avium complex isolates. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 40, 1759-1767
75. Hermon-Taylor J., Bull T. (2002): Crohn's disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: A public health tragedy whose resolution is long overdue. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 51, 3-6
76. Higuchi M. (1970): Significance of bacterial L-form in urinary infections. In particular, the mechanism causing pyelonephritis. I. (in Japanese). Nippon Hinyokika Gakkai Zasshi, 61, 427-447
77. Hines M.E., Styer E.L. (2003): Preliminary characterization of chemically generated Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis cell wall deficient forms (Spheroplasts). Veterinary Microbiology, 95, 247-258. http://www.vri.cz/docs/vetmed/49-5-161.pdf
78. Huber T.W. (2002): Growth of cell-wall-deficient variants of Enterobacter cloacae facilitates beta-lactamase derepressed mutants. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 19, 397-404
79. Hulten K., Karttunen T.J., El-Zimaity H.M.T, Naser S.A., Almashhrawi A., Graham D.Y., El-Zaatari F.A.K. (2000a): In situ hybridization method for studies of cell wall deficient M. paratuberculosis in tissue samples. Veterinary Microbiology, 77, 513-518
80. Hulten K., Karttunen T.J., El-Zimaity H.M.T., Naser S.A., Collins M.T., Graham D.Y., El-Zaatari F.A.K. (2000b): Identification of cell wall deficient forms of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in paraffin embedded tissues from animals with Johne's disease by in situ hybridization. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 42, 185-195
81. Hulten K., El-Zimaity H.M.T., Karttunen T.J., Almashhrawi A., Schwartz M.R., Graham D.Y., El-Zaatari F.A.K. (2001): Detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Crohn's diseased tissues by in situ hybridization. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 96, 1529-1535
82. Imaeda T. (1975): Ultrastructure of L-phase variants isolated from a culture of Mycobacterium phlei. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 8, 389-395
83. Imaeda T. (1984): Cell wall deficient forms. In: Kubica G.P., Wayne L.G (eds.): The Mycobacteria. A Sourcebook, Vol. 15, Part A, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York and Basel. 671-680
84. Insanov A.B., Gadzhiev G.S., Karachunskii M.A., Kiazimova L.G. (1990): Clinical symptoms and course of tuberculous meningitis in children: isolation of Lforms from the cerebrospinal fluid (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 9, 43-46
85. Insanov A.B., Gadzhiev F.S., Kiazimova L.G., Feizullaeva N.A. (1996): Comparative analysis of the results of spinal fluid microbiological study in children and adults who suffered from tuberculous meningitis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 5, 25-28
86. Isachkova L.M., Zhavoronkov A.A., Shubin F.N. (1993): Yersinia L-transformation in experimental pseudotuberculosis (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 1, 11-16
87. Johnson L.A., Edsall J.R., Austin J.H.M., Ellis K. (1996): Pulmonary sarcoidosis: Could Mycoplasma-like organisms be a cause? Sarcoidosis Vasculitis and Diffuse Lung Diseases, 13, 38-42
88. Kapralek F. (2000): Principles of Bacteriology (in Czech). Publisher Karolinum, Prague. 242 pp
89. Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Balta I.E. (1978): Dynamics of L-form mycobacteria excretion in the treatment of patients with newly diagnosed destructive pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 3, 66-70
90. Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Balta I.E. (1980): Clinical characteristics of newly detected destructive pulmonary tuberculosis in patients excreting mycobacterial L-forms (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 8, 15-20
91. Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Gadzhiev G.S., Shmatalova L.S. (1983a): Characteristics of clinical features of tuberculosis of the peripheral lymph nodes with the isolation of L forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 11, 32-36
92. Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Kaminskaia A.A., Abdullaeva E.T. (1983b): L-forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during chemotherapy of patients with chronic destructive pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 7, 38-43
93. Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Chukanov V.I., Balta I.E., Kiazimova L.M. (1986): Effect of rifampicin on the L-transformation of a mycobacterial population in patients with destructive pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 9, 31-34
94. Kazda J. (2000): The Ecology of Mycobacteria. 1st ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London. 72 pp
95. Khomenko A.G. (1980): Principles of rational tuberculosis chemotherapy (in Russian). Antibiotiki, 25, 534-539
96. Khomenko A.G., Muratov V.V. (1993): Epidemiological risks of tuberculous infection foci in patients discharging L forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 2-5
97. Khomenko A.G., Karachunskii M.A., Dorozhkova I.R., Chukanov V.I., Balta I.E. (1980): L-transformation of the mycobacterial population in the process of treating patients with newly detected destructive pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 18-23
98. Klieneberger E. (1935): The natural occurrence of pleuropneumonialike organisms in apparent symbiosis with Streptobacillus moniliformis and other bacteria. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 40, 93-105
99. Koch A.L. (2003): Cell wall-deficient (CWD) bacterial pathogens: Could amylotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) be due to one? Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 29, 215-221
100. Kochemasova Z.N., Dykhno M.M., Kassirskaia N.P., Bakalova D.I. (1975): L-forms in the urine of patients with renal tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 68-70
101. Kochetkova E.I. (1989): Clinical picture and course of newly detected pulmonary tuberculosis in elderly and senile patients, discharging L-forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 7, 29-32
102. Kochorova M.N., Semenovskii A.V., Oleinik A.N. (2002): Clinical picture of genital tuberculosis in different forms of its pathogen (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 6, 42-46
103. Kolattukudy P.E., Fernandes N.D., Azad A.K., Fitzmaurice A.M., Sirakova T.D. (1997): Biochemistry and molecular genetics of cell-wall lipid biosynthesis in mycobacteria. Molecular Microbiology, 24, 263-270
104. Konstantinova N.D., Katz L.N. (1982): Mode of the formation of elementary bodies and their release from the cell in bacterial L-forms (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 1, 44-48
105. Korsak, T. (1975): Occurrence of L-forms in a case of generalized mycobacteriosis due to Mycobacterium scrofulaceum. Acta Tuberculosea et Pneumologica Belgica, 66, 445-469
106. Kovalenko I.V., Dorozhkova I.R. (1986): Substantiation and development of immunofluorescent techniques for the detection and identification of the L-forms of mycobacteria (in Russian). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii, 6, 35-38
107. Krieg N.R., Holt J.G. (1984): Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. Vol. 1. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. 964 pp
108. Krivtsova A.E., Mazhenova S.A. (1986): Isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and their L forms from pa tients with osteoarticular tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 3, 63-66
109. Krudu V.N., Dorozhkova I.R. (1992): Estimation of the degree of risk of reactivation of residual tuberculous changes based on the status of mycobacterial population (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 5-6, 45-47
110. Kudriavtsev A.E., Kochemasova Z.N., Dykhno M.M., Kassirskaia N.G., Bakanova D.I. (1974): Characteristics of the course of meningeal tuberculosis with the presence of L-forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the cerebrospinal fluid (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 35-39
111. Langdale-Brown B., Haqqani M.T. (1990): Acridine orange fluorescence, Campylobacter pylori, and chronic gastritis. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, 25, 127-133
112. Laurent J.P., Hauge K., Burnside K., Cangelosi G. (2003): Mutational analysis of cell wall biosynthesis in Mycobacterium avium. Journal of Bacteriology, 185, 5003-5006
113. Lavallee P.W. (1973): A new fluorescence and Kinyoun's acid-fast stain. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 60, 428-429
114. Li G.L. (1990): Induction of the L forms of M. tuberculosis in vivo guinea pigs (in Chinese). Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi, 13, 351-354
115. Litvinov V.I., Mikhailova I.V., Kapina M.A., Baenskii A.V., Demianenko N.V. (1994): Dynamics in bacterial isolation and antigenemia in patients with infiltrative pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 23-25
116. Machackova M., Svastova P., Lamka J., Parmova I., Liska V., Smolik J., Fischer O.A., Pavlik I. (2004): Paratuberculosis in farmed and free-living wild ruminants in the Czech Republic (1999-2001). Veterinary Microbiology, 101, 225-234
117. Malassez L., Vignal W. (1883): Tuberculose zoogloeique. Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pathologique, 2, 369-412
118. Markesich D.C., Graham D.Y., Yoshimura H.H. (1988): Progress in culture and subculture of spheroplasts and fastidious acid-fast bacilli isolated from intestinal tissues. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 26, 1600-1603
119. Markova N., Michailova L., Vesselinova A., Kussovski V., Radoucheva T., Nikolova S., Paskaleva I. (1997): Cell wall-deficient forms (L-forms) of Listeria monocytogenes in experimentally infected rats. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie-International Journal of Medical Microbiology, Virology, Parasitology and Infectious Diseases, 286, 46-55
120. Mattman L.H. (2001): Cell Wall Deficient Forms: Stealth Pathogens. 3rd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 416 pp
121. Merkal R.S., Rhoades K.R., Gallagher J.E., Ritchie A.E. (1973): Scanning electron microscopy of mycobacteria. American Review of Respiratory Diseases, 108, 381-387
122. Michailova L., Kussovski V., Radoucheva I., Jordanova M., Berger W., Rinder H., Markova N. (2005): Morphological variability and cell-wall defficiency in Mycobacterium tuberculosis "heteroresistant" strains. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 9, 907-914
123. Milman N., Lisby G., Friis S., Kemp L. (2004): Prolonged culture for mycobacteria in mediastinal lymph nodes from patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. A negative study. Sarcoidosis Vasculitis and Diffuse Lung Diseases, 21, 25-28
124. Mitchell D.N. (1996): Mycobacteria and sarcoidosis. Lancet, 348 (9030), 768-769
125. Much H. (1907): About granular, according to Ziehl nonstainable form of tuberculous virus (in German). Beitrage zur Klinik der Tuberkulose, 8, 85-99
126. Mursic V.P., Wanner G., Reinhardt S., Wilske B., Busch U., Marget W. (1996): Formation and cultivation of Borrelia burgdorferi spheroplast-L-form variants. Infection, 24, 218-226
127. Murty M.V.V.S., Venkitasubramanian T.A. (1983): Growth and macromolecular synthesis of spheroplasts of Mycobacterium smegmatis ATCC 14468. Annales de Microbiologie (Institut Pasteur), 134B, 359-365
128. Murty M.V.V.S., Venkitasubramanian T.A. (1984): Evidence for the synthesis of peptidoglycan by spheroplasts of Mycobacterium smegmatis ATCC-14468. Annales de Microbiologie (Institut Pasteur), 135A, 367-374
129. Naser S.A., McCarthy C.M., Smith G.B., Tupponce A.K. (1993): Low temperature protocol for efficient transformation of Mycobacterium smegmatis spheroplasts. Current Microbiology, 27, 153-156
130. Osiiskii I.I., Kotliar K.D. (1989): Mycobacterium tuberculosis L forms in patients with pulmonary and pleural tuberculosis during antibacterial chemotherapy (in Russian). Vrachebnoe Delo, 9, 55-56
131. Pavlik I., Horvathova A., Dvorska L., Bartl J., Svastova P., Du Maine R., Rychlik I. (1999): Standardisation of Restriction fragment length polymorphism for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 38, 155-167
132. Pavlik I., Matlova L., Bartl J., Svastova P., Dvorska L., Whitlock R. (2000): Parallel faecal and organ Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis culture of different productivity types of cattle. Veterinary Microbiology, 77, 309-324
133. Pospelov L.E., Mikhailova I.V. (1993): Effect of HLAgenotype on bacterial colonization and antigenemia in patients with infiltrative pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 5, 35-37
134. Puzanov V.A., Nikolaeva G.M. (1994): Tinctorial properties of mycobacteria using standard and nontraditional staining technics (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 1, 31-35
135. Quirke P. (2001): Antagonist. Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis is a cause of Crohn's disease. Gut, 49, 755-760
136. Rastogi N. (1990): Killing intracellular mycobacteria: Dogmas and realities. Research in Microbiology, 141, 191-270
137. Rastogi N. (1991): Structure and functions of the cell envelope in relation to mycobacterial virulence, pathogenicity and multiple drug resistance. Research in Microbiology, 142, 419-481
138. Rastogi N., David H.L. (1981): Ultrastructural and chemical studies on wall-deficient forms, spheroplasts and membrane vesicles from Mycobacterium aurum. Journal of General Microbiology, 124 (Pt 1), 71-79
139. Rastogi N., Hellio R. (1990): Evidence that the capsule around mycobacteria grown in axenic media contains mycobacterial antigens: Implications at the level of cell envelope architecture. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 70, 161-166
140. Ratnam S., Chandrasekhar S. (1976): The pathogenicity of spheroplasts of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. American Review of Respiratory Diseases, 114, 549-554
141. Rutherford R.M., Gilmartin J.J. (2004): Mycobacteria in pathogenesis of sarcoidosis. Chest, 125, 354
142. Sakhelashvili M.I., Platonova I.L., Lapovets N.I., Kapral O.I., Kiromasova N.I., Mazhak K.D., Chura H.I., Vdovenko O.V., Pobiehushchyi M.M. (1998): Laboratory diagnostic methods in primary pulmonary tuberculosis in adults (in Ukrainian). Likars'ka Sprava, 1, 95-99
143. Salobai R.I., Berezovskii B.A., Golanov V.S. (1981): Significance of mycobacterial L forms in the development of pulmonary tuberculosis relapses (in Russian). Vrachebnoe Delo, 12, 77-80
144. Samillo G.K. (1986): Diagnostic significance of L-forms of tubercle mycobacteria in patients at the stage of sanatorium treatment (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 1, 31-35; 9, 28-30
145. Schwartz D., Shafran I., Romero C., Piromalli C., Biggerstaff J., Naser N., Chamberlin W., Naser S.A. (2000): Use of short-term culture for identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in tissue from Crohn's disease patients. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 6, 303-307
146. Sechi L.A., Mura M., Tanda F., Lissia A., Solinas A., Fadda G., Zanetti S. (2001): Identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in biopsy specimens from patients with Crohn's disease identified by in situ hybridization. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 39, 4514-4517
147. Seiler P., Ulrichs T., Bandermann S., Pradl L., Jorg S., Krenn V., Morawietz L., Kaufmann S.H.E., Aichele P. (2003): Cell-wall alterations as an attribute of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in latent infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 188, 1326-1331
148. Shafran I., Piromalli C., Decker J.W., Sandoval J., Naser S.A., El-Zaatari F.A.K. (2002): Seroreactivities against Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis p35 and p36 antigens in Crohn's disease patients. Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 47, 2079-2081
149. Snitinskaia O.S., Sibirnaia R.I., Beliakova O.I. (1990): The significance of L-form mycobacteria in the development of pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Vrachebnoe Delo, 3, 38-40
150. Sood F.H., Phatak V.D., Chardhari M.S. (1997): Bartonellosis and human immunodeficiency disease (AIDS): L-forms as persisters, activating factors, and mechanism of disease. Medical Hypotheses, 48, 511-515
151. Stanislavleva E.N., Bekasova V.S., Nemsadze M.N., Skriabina L.E. (1979): Microbiological studies in the clinical picture of osteoarticular tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 62-65
152. Sweany H.C. (1961): Atypical forms of M. tuberculosis. Diseases of the Chest, 40, 610-619
153. Takahashi T., Nakatsuka S., Okuda K., Tadokoro I. (1980): Preservation of bacterial L-forms by freezing. Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine, 50, 313-318
154. Takayama K., Wang L., Merkal R.S. (1973): Scanning electron microscopy of the H37Ra strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis exposed to isoniazid. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 4, 62-65
155. Thayer W.R., Coutu J.A., Chiodini R.J., Van Kruiningen H.J., Merkal R.S. (1984): Serological responses to an unclassified Mycobacterium sp. isolated from a patient with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology, 86, 1280-1284
156. Tsybulkina I.V. (1979): Isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and its L-forms from caverns and sputum of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 11, 64-68
157. Udou T., Ogawa M., Mizuguchi Y. (1982): Spheroplast formation of Mycobacterium smegmatis and morphological aspects of their reversion to the bacillary form. Journal of Bacteriology, 151, 1035-1039
158. Udou T., Ogawa M., Mizuguchi Y. (1983): An improved method for the preparation of mycobacterial spheroplasts and the mechanism involved in the reversion to bacillary form: Electron microscopic and physiological study. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 29, 60-68
159. Ulrichs T., Kaufmann S.H.E. (2002): Mycobacterial persistence and immunity. Frontiers in Bioscience, 7, 458-469
160. Van Kruiningen H.J. (1999): Lack of support for a common etiology in Johne's disease of animals and Crohn's disease in humans. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 5, 183-191
161. Van Kruiningen H.J., Ruiz B., Gumprecht L. (1991): Experimental disease in young chickens induced by a Mycobacterium paratuberculosis isolate from a patient with Crohn's disease. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 55, 199-202
162. Vishnevskaia E.B., Bobchenok A.P., Melnikova N.N., Vishnevskii B.I. (2001): Identification of L-forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 4, 38-40
163. Wall S., Kunze Z.M., Saboor S., Soufleri I., Seechurn P., Chiodini R., McFadden J.J. (1993): Identification of spheroplast-like agents isolated from tissues of patients with Crohn's disease and control tissues by polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 31, 1241-1245
164. Wang H., Chen Z. (2001): Observations of properties of the L-form of M. tuberculosis induced by the antituberculosis drugs (in Chinese). Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi, 24, 52-55
165. Wang K.X., Li C.P., Cui Y.B., Tian Y., Yang Q.G. (2003): L-forms of H. pylori. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 9, 525-528
166. Wayne L.G. (1994): Dormancy of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and latency of disease. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 13, 908-914
167. Willett H.P., Thacore H. (1966): The induction by lysozyme of an L-type growth in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 12, 11-16
168. Zemskova Z.S., Dorozhkova I.R., Eremeeva A.S., Goltsova N.A. (1985): Generalized tuberculosis in a child, caused by L forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 64-66
169. Zhang Y. (2004): Persistent and dormant tubercle bacilli and latent tuberculosis. Frontiers in Bioscience, 1, 1136-1156
170. Zhang Y., Telenti A. (2000): Genetics and drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In: Hatfull G.F., Jacobs W.R.Jr. (eds.): Molecular Genetics of Mycobacteria. ASM Press, Washington, DC, USA. 235-254
171. Zhangireev A.A. (1991): The use of a bacteriological method to detect an exacerbation in patients with cirrhotic tuberculosis of the lungs (in Russian). Problemy Tuberkuleza i Bolezni Legkikh, 2, 36-39
172. Zhu M., Xia P., Zhang Y. (2000): Detecting mycobacteria and their L-forms in peripheral blood from pulmonary tuberculosis patients by cultivation with hemolyzedcentrifugated blood in liquid medium (in Chinese). Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi, 23, 556-558