Glucocorticosteroid-induced spinal osteoporosis: Scientific update on pathophysiology and treatment

European Spine Journal

Volumn 15, Issue 7, 2006, Pages 1035-1049

  Popp, Albrecht W ^a   Isenegger, Juerg ^a   Buergi, Elizabeth M ^a   Buergi, Ulrich ^a   Lippuner, Kurt ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BERN   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Bisphosphonates; Glucocorticosteroids; Osteoporosis; Parathormone; Pathophysiology

Indexed keywords

ALENDRONIC ACID; ANDROGEN; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCITONIN; CALCITRIOL; CALCIUM; CLODRONIC ACID; COLECALCIFEROL DERIVATIVE; CORTICOSTEROID; ERGOCALCIFEROL; ESTROGEN; ETIDRONIC ACID; FLUORIDE; GESTAGEN; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; NANDROLONE DECANOATE; PAMIDRONIC ACID; PARATHYROID HORMONE; PARATHYROID HORMONE[1-34]; PLACEBO; PREDNISONE; RALOXIFENE; RISEDRONIC ACID; STRONTIUM RANELATE; TAMOXIFEN; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DERIVATIVE;

ANALGESIA; APOPTOSIS; ASTHMA; BONE DENSITY; CALCIUM ABSORPTION; CALCIUM METABOLISM; CALCIUM URINE LEVEL; CELL DEATH; CELL SURVIVAL; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORTICOSTEROID INDUCED OSTEOPOROSIS; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; EXERCISE; HOMEOSTASIS; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPERCALCEMIA; HYPOGONADISM; HYPOKALEMIA; KYPHOPLASTY; LONG TERM CARE; META ANALYSIS; OSSIFICATION; OSTEOBLAST; OSTEOCLAST; OSTEOLYSIS; PAIN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERCUTANEOUS VERTEBROPLASTY; PHOSPHATE METABOLISM; PHYSICAL MEDICINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SECONDARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM; SODIUM RESTRICTION; SPINE FRACTURE; SPINE MALFORMATION; SUPPLEMENTATION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; TREATMENT INDICATION; VERTEBRA FRACTURE;

DIPHOSPHONATES; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PARATHYROID HORMONE; SPINAL FRACTURES;

EID: 33746083594     PISSN: 09406719     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00586-005-0056-x     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Adachi JD, Bensen WG, Brown J, Hanley D, Hodsman A, Josse R, Kendler DL, Lentle B, Olszynski W, Ste-Marie LG, Tenenhouse A, Chines AA (1997) Intermittent etidronate therapy to prevent corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 337:382-387
2. Adachi JD, Saag KG, Delmas PD, Liberman UA, Emkey RD, Seeman E, Lane NE, Kaufman JM, Poubelle PE, Hawkins F, Correa-Rotter R, Menkes CJ, Rodriguez-Portales JA, Schnitzer TJ, Block JA, Wing J, McIlwain HH, Westhovens R, Brown J, Melo-Gomes JA, Gruber BL, Yanover MJ, Leite MO, Siminoski KG, Nevitt MC, Sharp JT, Malice MP, Dumortier T, Czachur M, Carofano W, Daifotis A (2001) Two-year effects of alendronate on bone mineral density and vertebral fracture in patients receiving glucocorticoids: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled extension trial. Arthritis Rheum 44:202-211
3. Adami S, Fossaluzza V, Rossini M, Bertoldo F, Gatti D, Zamberlan N, Lo Cascio V (1991) The prevention of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis with nandrolone decanoate. Bone Miner 15:73-81
4. Adinoff AD, Hollister JR (1983) Steroid-induced fractures and bone loss in patients with asthma. N Engl J Med 309:265-268
5. American College of Rheumatology Ad Hoc Committee on Glucocorticoid- Induced Osteoporosis (2001) Recommendations for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: 2001 update. Arthritis Rheum 44:1496-1503
6. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black H, Bonds D, Brunner R, Brzyski R, Caan B, Chlebowski R, Curb D, Gass M, Hays J, Heiss G, Hendrix S, Howard BV, Hsia J, Hubbell A, Jackson R, Johnson KC, Judd H, Kotchen JM, Kuller L, LaCroix AZ, Lane D, Langer RD, Lasser N, Lewis CE, Manson J, Margolis K, Ockene J, O'Sullivan MJ, Phillips L, Prentice RL, Ritenbaugh C, Robbins J, Rossouw JE, Sarto G, Stefanick ML, Van Horn L, Wactawski-Wende J, Wallace R, Wassertheil-Smoller S (2004) Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291:1701-1712
7. Bean JF, Vora A, Frontera WR (2004) Benefits of exercise for community-dwelling older adults. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85:S31-S42
8. Bellido T, Ali AA, Plotkin LI, Fu Q, Gubrij I, Roberson PK, Weinstein RS, O'Brien CA, Manolagas SC, Jilka RL (2003) Proteasomal degradation of Runx2 shortens parathyroid hormone-induced anti-apoptotic signaling in osteoblasts. A putative explanation for why intermittent administration is needed for bone anabolism. J Biol Chem 278:50259-50272
9. Bijlsma JW, Raymakers JA, Mosch C, Hoekstra A, Derksen RH, Baart de la Faille H, Duursma SA (1988) Effect of oral calcium and vitamin D on glucocorticoid-induced osteopenia. Clin Exp Rheumatol 6:113-119
10. Borer KT (2005) Physical activity in the prevention and amelioration of osteoporosis in women: interaction of mechanical, hormonal and dietary factors. Sports Med 35:779-830
11. Boutsen Y, Jamart J, Esselinckx W, Stoffel M, Devogelaer JP (1997) Primary prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis with intermittent intravenous pamidronate: a randomized trial. Calcif Tissue Int 61:266-271
12. Boutsen Y, Jamart J, Esselinckx W, Devogelaer JP (2001) Primary prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis with intravenous pamidronate and calcium: a prospective controlled 1-year study comparing a single infusion, an infusion given once every 3 months, and calcium alone. J Bone Miner Res 16:104-112
13. Braun JJ, Birkenhager-Frenkel DH, Rietveld AH, Juttmann JR, Visser TJ, Birkenhager JC (1983) Influence of 1 alpha-(OH)D3 administration on bone and bone mineral metabolism in patients on chronic glucocorticoid treatment; a double blind controlled study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 19:265-273
14. Buckley LM, Hillner BE (2003) A cost effectiveness analysis of calcium and vitamin D supplementation, etidronate, and alendronate in the prevention of vertebral fractures in women treated with glucocorticoids. J Rheumatol 30:132-138
15. Buckley LM, Marquez M, Hudson JO, Downs RW, Vacek P, Small RE, Poses R (1998) Variations in physicians' judgments about corticosteroid induced osteoporosis by physician specialty. J Rheumatol 25:2195-2202
16. Campbell IA, Douglas JG, Francis RM, Prescott RJ, Reid DM (2004) Five year study of etidronate and/or calcium as prevention and treatment for osteoporosis and fractures in patients with asthma receiving long term oral and/or inhaled glucocorticoids. Thorax 59:761-768
17. Caniggia A, Nuti R, Lore F, Vattimo A (1981) Pathophysiology of the adverse effects of glucoactive corticosteroids on calcium metabolism in man. J Steroid Biochem 15:153-161
18. Chyun YS, Kream BE, Raisz LG (1984) Cortisol decreases bone formation by inhibiting periosteal cell proliferation. Endocrinology 114:477-480
19. Cohen D, Adachi JD (2004) The treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 88:337-349
20. Cohen S, Levy RM, Keller M, Boling E, Emkey RD, Greenwald M, Zizic TM, Wallach S, Sewell KL, Lukert BP, Axelrod DW, Chines AA (1999) Risedronate therapy prevents corticosteroid-induced bone loss: a twelve-month, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Arthritis Rheum 42:2309-2318
21. Compston J (2003) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Horm Res 60(Suppl 3):77-79
22. Cooper MS, Rabbitt EH, Goddard PE, Bartlett WA, Hewison M, Stewart PM (2002) Osteoblastic 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity increases with age and glucocorticoid exposure. J Bone Miner Res 17:979-986
23. Cooper MS, Blumsohn A, Goddard PE, Bartlett WA, Shackleton CH, Eastell R, Hewison M, Stewart PM (2003) 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity predicts the effects of glucocorticoids on bone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3874-3877
24. Cranney A, Welch V, Adachi JD, Homik J, Shea B, Suarez-Almazor ME, Tugwell P, Wells G (2000) Calcitonin for the treatment and prevention of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD001983
25. Crilly R, Cawood M, Marshall DH, Nordin BE (1978) Hormonal status in normal, osteoporotic and corticosteroid-treated postmenopausal women. J R Soc Med 71:733-736
26. Cummings SR, Browner WS, Bauer D, Stone K, Ensrud K, Jamal S, Ettinger B (1998) Endogenous hormones and the risk of hip and vertebral fractures among older women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. N Engl J Med 339:733-738
27. Delany AM, Durant D, Canalis E (2001) Glucocorticoid suppression of IGF I transcription in osteoblasts. Mol Endocrinol 15:1781-1789
28. de Nijs RN, Jacobs JW, Algra A, Lems WF, Bijlsma JW (2004) Prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis with active vitamin D3 analogues: a review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials including organ transplantation studies. Osteoporos Int 15:589-602
29. Diamond T, McGuigan L, Barbagallo S, Bryant C (1995) Cyclical etidronate plus ergocalciferol prevents glucocorticoid-induced bone loss in postmenopausal women. Am J Med 98:459-463
30. Diamond TH, Champion B, Clark WA (2003) Management of acute osteoporotic vertebral fractures: a nonrandomized trial comparing percutaneous vertebroplasty with conservative therapy. Am J Med 114:257-265
31. Donovan MA, Khandji AG, Siris E (2004) Multiple adjacent vertebral fractures after kyphoplasty in a patient with steroid-induced osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 19:712-713
32. Eastell R, Reid DM, Compston J, Cooper C, Fogelman I, Francis RM, Hosking DJ, Purdie DW, Ralston SH, Reeve J, Russell RG, Stevenson JC, Torgerson DJ (1998) A UK Consensus Group on management of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: an update. J Intern Med 244:271-292
33. Fentiman IS, Saad Z, Caleffi M, Chaudary MA, Fogelman I (1992) Tamoxifen protects against steroid-induced bone loss. Eur J Cancer 28:684-685
34. Frediani B, Falsetti P, Baldi F, Acciai C, Filippou G, Marcolongo R (2003) Effects of 4-year treatment with once-weekly clodronate on prevention of corticosteroid-induced bone loss and fractures in patients with arthritis: evaluation with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and quantitative ultrasound. Bone 33:575-581
35. Gennari C (1993) Differential effect of glucocorticoids on calcium absorption and bone mass. Br J Rheumatol 32(Suppl 2):11-14
36. Gennari C, Civitelli R (1986) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Clin Rheum Dis 12:637-654
37. Geusens P, Dequeker J, Vanhoof J, Stalmans R, Boonen S, Joly J, Nijs J, Raus J (1998) Cyclical etidronate increases bone density in the spine and hip of postmenopausal women receiving long term corticosteroid treatment. A double blind, randomised placebo controlled study. Ann Rheum Dis 57:724-727
38. Geusens PP, de Nijs RN, Lems WF, Laan RF, Struijs A, van Staa TP, Bijlsma JW (2004) Prevention of glucocorticoid osteoporosis: a consensus document of the Dutch Society for Rheumatology. Ann Rheum Dis 63:324-325
39. Glassman SD, Alegre GM (2003) Adult spinal deformity in the osteoporotic spine: options and pitfalls. Instr Course Lect 52:579-588
40. Gluck OS, Murphy WA, Hahn TJ, Hahn B (1981) Bone loss in adults receiving alternate day glucocorticoid therapy. A comparison with daily therapy. Arthritis Rheum 24:892-898
41. Gonnelli S, Rottoli P, Cepollaro C, Pondrelli C, Cappiello V, Vagliasindi M, Gennari C (1997) Prevention of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis with alendronate in sarcoid patients. Calcif Tissue Int 61:382-385
42. Grecu EO, Weinshelbaum A, Simmons R (1990) Effective therapy of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis with medroxyprogesterone acetate. Calcif Tissue Int 46:294-299
43. Greenwald M, Brandli D, Spector S, Silverman S, Golde G (1992) Corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis: effects of a treatment with slow-release sodium fluoride. Osteoporos Int 2:303-304
44. Haguenauer D, Welch V, Shea B, Tugwell P, Adachi JD, Wells G (2000) Fluoride for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporotic fractures: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 11:727-738
45. Hahn TJ, Boisseau VC, Avioli LV (1974) Effect of chronic corticosteroid administration on diaphyseal and metaphyseal bone mass. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 39:274-282
46. Hahn TJ, Halstead LR, Teitelbaum SL, Hahn BH (1979) Altered mineral metabolism in glucocorticoid-induced osteopenia. Effect of 25-hydroxyvitamin D administration. J Clin Invest 64:655-665
47. Hahn TJ, Halstead LR, Baran DT (1981) Effects off short term glucocorticoid administration on intestinal calcium absorption and circulating vitamin D metabolite concentrations in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 52:111-115
48. Hall GM, Spector TD, Griffin AJ, Jawad AS, Hall ML, Doyle DV (1993) The effect of rheumatoid arthritis and steroid therapy on bone density in postmenopausal women. Arthritis Rheum 36:1510-1516
49. Hall GM, Daniels M, Doyle DV, Spector TD (1994) Effect of hormone replacement therapy on bone mass in rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with and without steroids. Arthritis Rheum 37:1499-1505
50. Harrop JS, Prpa B, Reinhardt MK, Lieberman I (2004) Primary and secondary osteoporosis' incidence of subsequent vertebral compression fractures after kyphoplasty. Spine 29:2120-2125
51. Herrala J, Puolijoki H, Liippo K, Raitio M, Impivaara O, Tala E, Nieminen MM (1998) Clodronate is effective in preventing corticosteroid-induced bone loss among asthmatic patients. Bone 22:577-582
52. Hock JM, Gera I (1992) Effects of continuous and intermittent administration and inhibition of resorption on the anabolic response of bone to parathyroid hormone. J Bone Miner Res 7:65-72
53. Hubbard RB, Smith CJ, Smeeth L, Harrison TW, Tattersfield AE (2002) Inhaled corticosteroids and hip fracture: a population-based case-control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166:1563-1566
54. Ip M, Lam K, Yam L, Kung A, Ng M (1994) Decreased bone mineral density in premenopausal asthma patients receiving long-term inhaled steroids. Chest 105:1722-1727
55. Jilka RL, Weinstein RS, Bellido T, Roberson P, Parfitt AM, Manolagas SC (1999) Increased bone formation by prevention of osteoblast apoptosis with parathyroid hormone. J Clin Invest 104:439-446
56. Jones A, Fay JK, Burr M, Stone M, Hood K, Roberts G (2002) Inhaled corticosteroid effects on bone metabolism in asthma and mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD003537
57. Kaplan RS, Sinaki M, Hameister MD (1996) Effect of back supports on back strength in patients with osteoporosis: a pilot study. Mayo Clin Proc 71:235-241
58. Kasperk C, Hillmeier J, Noldge G, Grafe IA, Dafonseca K, Raupp D, Bardenheuer H, Libicher M, Liegibel UM, Sommer U, Hilscher U, Pyerin W, Vetter M, Meinzer HP, Meeder PJ, Taylor RS, Nawroth P (2005) Treatment of painful vertebral fractures by kyphoplasty in patients with primary osteoporosis: a prospective nonrandomized controlled study. J Bone Miner Res 20:604-612
59. Kerschan K, Alacamlioglu Y, Kollmitzer J, Wober C, Kaider A, Hartard M, Ghanem AH, Preisinger E (1998) Functional impact of unvarying exercise program in women after menopause. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 77:326-332
60. Kerschan-Shindl K, Uher E, Kainberger F, Kaider A, Ghanem AH, Preisinger E (2000) Long-term home exercise program: effect in women at high risk of fracture. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81:319-323
61. Krogsgaard MR, Thamsborg G, Lund B (1996) Changes in bone mass during low dose corticosteroid treatment in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: a double blind, prospective comparison between prednisolone and deflazacort. Ann Rheum Dis 55:143-146
62. Lane NE, Sanchez S, Modin GW, Genant HK, Pierini E, Arnaud CD (1998) Parathyroid hormone treatment can reverse corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Results of a randomized controlled clinical trial. J Clin Invest 102:1627-1633
63. Lane NE, Sanchez S, Genant HK, Jenkins DK, Arnaud CD (2000) Short-term increases in bone turnover markers predict parathyroid hormone-induced spinal bone mineral density gains in postmenopausal women with glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 11:434-442
64. Lems WF, Jacobs WG, Bijlsma JW, Croone A, Haanen HC, Houben HH, Gerrits MI, van Rijn HJ (1997) Effect of sodium fluoride on the prevention of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 7:575-582
65. Lindsay R, Nieves J, Formica C, Henneman E, Woelfert L, Shen V, Dempster D, Cosman F (1997) Randomised controlled study of effect of parathyroid hormone on vertebral-bone mass and fracture incidence among postmenopausal women on oestrogen with osteoporosis. Lancet 350:550-555
66. Lippuner K, Haller B, Casez JP, Montandon A, Jaeger P (1996) Effect of disodium monofluorophosphate, calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone mineral density in patients chronically treated with glucocorticosteroids: a prospective, randomized, doubleblind study. Miner Electrolyte Metab 22:207-213
67. Lippuner K, Casez JP, Horber FF, Jaeger P (1998) Effects of deflazacort versus prednisone on bone mass, body composition, and lipid profile: a randomized, double blind study in kidney transplant patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:3795-3802
68. Lipworth BJ (1999) Systemic adverse effects of inhaled corticosteroid therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 159:941-955
69. LoCascio V, Bonucci E, Imbimbo B, Ballanti P, Adami S, Milani S, Tartarotti D, DellaRocca C (1990) Bone loss in response to long-term glucocorticoid therapy. Bone Miner 8:39-51
70. LoCascio V, Ballanti P, Milani S, Bertoldo F, LoCascio C, Zanolin EM, Bonucci E (1998) A histomorphometric long-term longitudinal study of trabecular bone loss in glucocorticoid-treated patients: prednisone versus deflazacort. Calcif Tissue Int 62:199-204
71. Luengo M, Picado C, Del Rio L, Guanabens N, Montserrat JM, Setoain J (1991) Vertebral fractures in steroid dependent asthma and involutional osteoporosis: a comparative study. Thorax 46:803-806
72. Lukert BP, Raisz LG (1990) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: pathogenesis and management. Ann Intern Med 112:352-364
73. Lukert BP, Johnson BE, Robinson RG (1992) Estrogen and progesterone replacement therapy reduces glucocorticoid-induced bone loss. J Bone Miner Res 7:1063-1069
74. Lyles KW, Gold DT, Shipp KM, Pieper CF, Martinez S, Mulhausen PL (1993) Association of osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures with impaired functional status. Am J Med 94:595-601
75. MacAdams MR, White RH, Chipps BE (1986) Reduction of serum testosterone levels during chronic glucocorticoid therapy. Ann Intern Med 104:648-651
76. Manolagas SC (1999) Cell number versus cell vigor - what really matters to a regenerating skeleton? Endocrinology 140:4377-4381
77. Manolagas SC, Weinstein RS (1999) New developments in the pathogenesis and treatment of steroid-induced osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 14:1061-1066
78. Mathis JM, Petri M, Naff N (1998) Percutaneous vertebroplasty treatment of steroid-induced osteoporotic compression fractures. Arthritis Rheum 41:171-175
79. McCarthy TL, Ji C, Chen Y, Kim K, Centrella M (2000) Time- and dose-related interactions between glucocorticoid and cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate on CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-dependent insulin-like growth factor I expression by osteoblasts. Endocrinology 141:127-137
80. McKiernan F, Faciszewski T, Jensen R (2004) Quality of life following vertebroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am 86-A:2600-2606
81. Messina OD, Barreira JC, Zanchetta JR, Maldonado-Cocco JA, Bogado CE, Sebastian ON, Flores D, Riopedre AM, Redondo G, Lazaro A (1992) Effect of low doses of deflazacort vs prednisone on bone mineral content in premenopausal rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 19:1520-1526
82. Meys E, Terreaux-Duvert F, Beaume-Six T, Dureau G, Meunier PJ (1993) Bone loss after cardiac transplantation: effects of calcium, calcidiol and monofluorophosphate. Osteoporos Int 3:322-329
83. Michel BA, Bloch DA, Fries JF (1991) Predictors of fractures in early rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 18:804-808
84. Morrison D, Ali NJ, Routledge PA, Capewell S (1992) Bone turnover during short course prednisolone treatment in patients with chronic obstructive airways disease. Thorax 47:418-420
85. Mulder H, Struys A (1994) Intermittent cyclical etidronate in the prevention of corticosteroid-induced bone loss. Br J Rheumatol 33:348-350
86. Naunton M, Peterson GM, Jones G, Griffin GM, Bleasel MD (2004) Multi-faceted educational program increases prescribing of preventive medication for corticosteroid induced osteoporosis. J Rheumatol 31:550-556
87. Nawata H, Soen S, Takayanagi R, Tanaka I, Takaoka K, Fukunaga M, Matsumoto T, Suzuki Y, Tanaka H, Fujiwara S, Miki T, Sagawa A, Nishizawa Y, Seino Y (2005) Guidelines on the management and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis of the Japanese Society for Bone and Mineral Research (2004). J Bone Miner Metab 23:105-109
88. Neer RM, Arnaud CD, Zanchetta JR, Prince R, Gaich GA, Reginster JY, Hodsman AB, Eriksen EF, Ish-Shalom S, Genant HK, Wang O, Mitlak BH (2001) Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 344:1434-1441
89. O'Brien CA, Jia D, Plotkin LI, Bellido T, Powers CC, Stewart SA, Manolagas SC, Weinstein RS (2004) Glucocorticoids act directly on osteoblasts and osteocytes to induce their apoptosis and reduce bone formation and strength. Endocrinology 145:1835-1841
90. Pereira RM, Delany AM, Canalis E (2001) Cortisol inhibits the differentiation and apoptosis of osteoblasts in culture. Bone 28:484-490
91. Pereira RC, Delany AM, Canalis E (2002) Effects of cortisol and bone morphogenetic protein-2 on stromal cell differentiation: correlation with CCAAT-enhancer binding protein expression. Bone 30:685-691
92. Pereira RM, Delany AM, Durant D, Canalis E (2002) Cortisol regulates the expression of Notch in osteoblasts. J Cell Biochem 85:252-258
93. Pfeifer M, Sinaki M, Geusens P, Boonen S, Preisinger E, Minne HW (2004) Musculoskeletal rehabilitation in osteoporosis: a review. J Bone Miner Res 19:1208-1214
94. Phillips EM, Bodenheimer CF, Roig RL, Cifu DX (2004) Geriatric rehabilitation. 4. Physical medicine and rehabilitation interventions for common age-related disorders and geriatric syndromes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85:S18-S22
95. Pitt P, Li F, Todd P, Webber D, Pack S, Moniz C (1998) A double blind placebo controlled study to determine the effects of intermittent cyclical etidronate on bone mineral density in patients on long-term oral corticosteroid treatment. Thorax 53:351-356
96. Plotkin LI, Weinstein RS, Parfitt AM, Roberson PK, Manolagas SC, Bellido T (1999) Prevention of osteocyte and osteoblast apoptosis by bisphosphonates and calcitonin. J Clin Invest 104:1363-1374
97. Pocock NA, Eisman JA, Dunstan CR, Evans RA, Thomas DH, Huq NL (1987) Recovery from steroid-induced osteoporosis. Ann Intern Med 107:319-323
98. Priftis K, Everard ML, Milner AD (1991) Unexpected side-effects of inhaled steroids: a case report. Eur J Pediatr 150:448-449
99. Prior JC (1990) Progesterone as a bone-trophic hormone. Endocr Rev 11:386-398
100. Prior JC, Barr SI, Chow R, Faulkner RA (1996) Prevention and management of osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society of Canada. 5. Physical activity as therapy for osteoporosis. CMAJ 155:940-944
101. Reginster JY, de Froidmont C, Lecart MP, Sarlet N, Defraigne JO (1999) Alphacalcidol in prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int 65:328-331
102. Reginster JY, Kuntz D, Verdickt W, Wouters M, Guillevin L, Menkes CJ, Nielsen K (1999) Prophylactic use of alfacalcidol in corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 9:75-81
103. Rehman Q, Lang TF, Arnaud CD, Modin GW, Lane NE (2003) Daily treatment with parathyroid hormone is associated with an increase in vertebral cross-sectional area in postmenopausal women with glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 14:77-81
104. Reid IR (1989) Pathogenesis and treatment of steroid osteoporosis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 30:83-103
105. Reid IR, Heap SW (1990) Determinants of vertebral mineral density in patients receiving long-term glucocorticoid therapy. Arch Intern Med 150:2545-2548
106. Reid IR, Ibbertson HK (1987) Evidence for decreased tubular reabsorption of calcium in glucocorticoid-treated asthmatics. Horm Res 27:200-204
107. Reid IR, King AR, Alexander CJ, Ibbertson HK (1988) Prevention of steroid-induced osteoporosis with (3-amino-1-hydroxypropylidene)-1,1- bisphosphonate (APD). Lancet 1:143-146
108. Reid IR, Wattie DJ, Evans MC, Stapleton JP (1996) Testosterone therapy in glucocorticoid-treated men. Arch Intern Med 156:1173-1177
109. Reid DM, Hughes RA, Laan RF, Sacco-Gibson NA, Wenderoth DH, Adami S, Eusebio RA, Devogelaer JP (2000) Efficacy and safety of daily risedronate in the treatment of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis in men and women: a randomized trial. European Corticosteroid-Induced Osteoporosis Treatment Study. J Bone Miner Res 15:1006-1013
110. Reid DM, Adami S, Devogelaer JP, Chines AA (2001) Risedronate increases bone density and reduces vertebral fracture risk within one year in men on corticosteroid therapy. Calcif Tissue Int 69:242-247
111. Rejnmark L, Vestergaard P, Heickendorff L, Andreasen F, Mosekilde L (2001) Effects of thiazide- and loop-diuretics, alone or in combination, on calcitropic hormones and biochemical bone markers: a randomized controlled study. J Intern Med 250:144-153
112. Richy F, Ethgen O, Bruyere O, Reginster JY (2004) Efficacy of alphacalcidol and calcitriol in primary and corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis: a meta-analysis of their effects on bone mineral density and fracture rate. Osteoporos Int 15:301-310
113. Richy F, Schacht E, Bruyere O, Ethgen O, Gourlay M, Reginster JY (2005) Vitamin D analogs versus native vitamin d in preventing bone loss and osteoporosis-related fractures: a comparative meta-analysis. Calcif Tissue Int 76(3):176-186
114. Rickers H, Deding A, Christiansen C, Rodbro P, Naestoft J (1982) Corticosteroid-induced osteopenia and vitamin D metabolism. Effect of vitamin D2, calcium phosphate and sodium fluoride administration. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 16:409-415
115. Ringe JD (1989) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Clin Rheumatol 8(Suppl 2):109-115
116. Ringe JD, Welzel D (1987) Salmon calcitonin in the therapy of corticoid-induced osteoporosis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 33:35-39
117. Rizzato G, Montemurro L (1993) Reversibility of exogenous corticosteroid-induced bone loss. Eur Respir J 6:116-119
118. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J (2002) Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288:321-333
119. Roux C, Oriente P, Laan R, Hughes RA, Ittner J, Goemaere S, Di Munno O, Pouilles JM, Horlait S, Cortet B (1998) Randomized trial of effect of cyclical etidronate in the prevention of corticosteroid-induced bone loss. Ciblos Study Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:1128-1133
120. Ruegsegger P, Medici TC, Anliker M (1983) Corticosteroid-induced bone loss. A longitudinal study of alternate day therapy in patients with bronchial asthma using quantitative computed tomography. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 25:615-620
121. Saag KG, Emkey R, Schnitzer TJ, Brown JP, Hawkins F, Goemaere S, Thamsborg G, Liberman UA, Delmas PD, Malice MP, Czachur M, Daifotis AG (1998) Alendronate for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis Intervention Study Group. N Engl J Med 339:292-299
122. Sakakura M, Takebe K, Nakagawa S (1975) Inhibition of luteinizing hormone secretion induced by synthetic LRH by long-term treatment with glucocorticoids in human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 40:774-779
123. Sambrook P, Nguyen T (1992) Vertebral osteoporosis in rheumatoid arthritis patients: effect of low dose prednisone therapy. Br J Rheumatol 31:573-574
124. Sambrook PN, Cohen ML, Eisman JA, Pocock NA, Champion GD, Yeates MG (1989) Effects of low dose corticosteroids on bone mass in rheumatoid arthritis: a longitudinal study. Ann Rheum Dis 48:535-538
125. Sambrook P, Birmingham J, Kelly P, Kempler S, Nguyen T, Pocock N, Eisman J (1993) Prevention of corticosteroid osteoporosis. A comparison of calcium, calcitriol, and calcitonin. N Engl J Med 328:1747-1752
126. Sambrook PN, Kelly PJ, Keogh AM, Macdonald P, Spratt P, Freund J, Eisman JA (1994) Bone loss after heart transplantation: a prospective study; discussion 121. J Heart Lung Transplant 13:116-120
127. Schneider HP (2003) Androgens and antiandrogens. Ann NY Acad Sci 997:292-306
128. Seeman E, Wahner HW, Offord KP, Kumar R, Johnson WJ, Riggs BL (1982) Differential effects of endocrine dysfunction on the axial and the appendicular skeleton. J Clin Invest 69:1302-1309
129. Sinaki M (2003) Nonpharmacologic interventions. Exercise, fall prevention, and role of physical medicine. Clin Geriatr Med 19:337-359
130. Snyder BD, Zaltz I, Breitenbach MA, Kido TH, Myers ER, Emans JB (1995) Does bracing affect bone density in adolescent scoliosis? Spine 20:1554-1560
131. Snyder BD, Katz DA, Myers ER, Breitenbach MA, Emans JB (2005) Bone density accumulation is not affected by brace treatment of idiopathic scoliosis in adolescent girls. J Pediatr Orthop 25:423-428
132. Stellon AJ, Webb A, Compston JE (1988) Bone histomorphometry and structure in corticosteroid treated chronic active hepatitis. Gut 29:378-384
133. Stevens JA, Olson S (2000) Reducing falls and resulting hip fractures among older women. MMWR Recomm Rep 49:3-12
134. Suzuki Y, Ichikawa Y, Saito E, Homma M (1983) Importance of increased urinary calcium excretion in the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism of patients under glucocorticoid therapy. Metabolism 32:151-156
135. Tenenbaum HC, Kamalia N, Sukhu B, Limeback H, McCulloch CA (1995) Probing glucocorticoid-dependent osteogenesis in rat and chick cells in vitro by specific blockade of osteoblastic differentiation with progesterone and RU38486. Anat Rec 242:200-210
136. Uzawa T, Hori M, Ejiri S, Ozawa H (1995) Comparison of the effects of intermittent and continuous administration of human parathyroid hormone(1-34) on rat bone. Bone 16:477-484
137. van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L, Zhang B, Cooper C (2000) Use of oral corticosteroids and risk of fractures. J Bone Miner Res 15:993-1000
138. van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L, Zhang B, Cooper C (2000) Oral corticosteroids and fracture risk: relationship to daily and cumulative doses. Rheumatology (Oxford) 39:1383-1389
139. van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Cooper C (2001) Use of inhaled corticosteroids and risk of fractures. J Bone Miner Res 16:581-588
140. van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Cooper C (2002) The epidemiology of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 13:777-787
141. van Staa TP, Laan RF, Barton IP, Cohen S, Reid DM, Cooper C (2003) Bone density threshold and other predictors of vertebral fracture in patients receiving oral glucocorticoid therapy. Arthritis Rheum 48:3224-3229
142. van Staa TP, Geusens P, Pols HA, de Laet C, Leufkens HG, Cooper C (2005) A simple score for estimating the long-term risk of fracture in patients using oral glucocorticoids. QJM 98:191-198
143. Wallach S, Cohen S, Reid DM, Hughes RA, Hosking DJ, Laan RF, Doherty SM, Maricic M, Rosen C, Brown J, Barton I, Chines AA (2000) Effects of risedronate treatment on bone density and vertebral fracture in patients on corticosteroid therapy. Calcif Tissue Int 67:277-285
144. Weinstein RS (2001) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2:65-73
145. Weinstein RS, Manolagas SC (2000) Apoptosis and osteoporosis. Am J Med 108:153-164
146. Weinstein RS, Jilka RL, Parfitt AM, Manolagas SC (1998) Inhibition of osteoblastogenesis and promotion of apoptosis of osteoblasts and osteocytes by glucocorticoids. Potential mechanisms of their deleterious effects on bone. J Clin Invest 102:274-282
147. Weinstein RS, Chen JR, Powers CC, Stewart SA, Landes RD, Bellido T, Jilka RL, Parfitt AM, Manolagas SC (2002) Promotion of osteoclast survival and antagonism of bisphosphonate-induced osteoclast apoptosis by glucocorticoids. J Clin Invest 109:1041-1048
148. Wolinsky-Friedland M (1995) Drug-induced metabolic bone disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 24:395-420
149. Wong CA, Walsh LJ, Smith CJ, Wisniewski AF, Lewis SA, Hubbard R, Cawte S, Green DJ, Pringle M, Tattersfield AE (2000) Inhaled corticosteroid use and bone-mineral density in patients with asthma. Lancet 355:1399-1403