The evolution of arthropod heads: Reconciling morphological, developmental and palaeontological evidence

Development Genes and Evolution

Volumn 216, Issue 7-8, 2006, Pages 395-415

  Scholtz, Gerhard ^a   Edgecombe, Gregory D ^b  

^a HUMBOLDT UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM   (Australia)

Author keywords

Cambrian; Labrum; Primary antennae; Secondary antennae; Segmentation; Trilobita

Indexed keywords

DECAPENTAPLEGIC PROTEIN; HOX PROTEIN; SONIC HEDGEHOG PROTEIN; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR DLX5; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR OTX; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR PAX3; WNT1 PROTEIN;

ANTENNA; ARTHROPOD; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENTAL GENETICS; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; EMBRYO SEGMENTATION; GENE EXPRESSION; HEAD; HOMEOBOX; HYPOTHESIS; INSECT DEVELOPMENT; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION; MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY; MONOPHYLY; MORPHOGENESIS; MOUTH; NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SKULL DEVELOPMENT; SPECIES DIFFERENCE;

ANIMALS; ARTHROPODS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; EVOLUTION; FOSSILS; HEAD; PHYLOGENY;

ARTHROPODA; MANDIBULATA; ONYCHOPHORA; TRILOBITA;

EID: 33745956028     PISSN: 0949944X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00427-006-0085-4     Document Type: Review

References (216)

1. Abzhanov A, Kaufman T (2000a) Homologs of Drosophila appendage genes in the patterning of arthropod limbs. Dev Biol 227:673-689
2. Abzhanov A, Kaufman T (2000b) Evolution of distinct expression patterns for engrailed paralogues in higher crustaceans (Malacostraca). Dev Genes Evol 210:493-506
3. Abzhanov A, Kaufman T (2004) Hox genes and tagmatization of the higher Crustacea. In: Scholtz G (ed) Evolutionary developmental biology of crustacea. Balkema, Lisse, pp 43-74
4. Ackermann C, Dorresteijn A, Fischer A (2005) Clonal domains in postlarval Platynereis dumerilii (Annelida: Polychaeta). J Morph 266:258-280
5. Aguinaldo AMA, Turbeville JM, Linford LS, Rivera MC, Garey JR, Raff RA, Lake JA (1997) Evidence for a clade of nematodes, arthropods and other moulting animals. Nature 387:489-493
6. Alwes F, Scholtz G (2006) Stages and other aspects of the embryology of the parthenogenetic Marmorkrebs (Decapoda, Reptantia, Astacida). Dev Genes Evol 216(4):169-184
7. Anderson DT (1973) Embryology and phylogeny in annelids and arthropods. Pergamon, Oxford
8. Angelini DR, Kaufman TC (2005) Insect appendages and comparative ontogenetics. Dev Biol 286:57-77
9. Arendt D, Technau U, Wittbrodt J (2001) Evolution of the bilaterian larval foregut. Nature 409:81-84
10. Babu KS (1965) Anatomy of the central nervous system of arachnids. Zool Jb Anat 82:1-154
11. Bartolomaeus T, Purschke G, Hausen H (2005) Polychaete phylogeny based on morphological data - a comparison of current attempts. Hydrobiologia 535/536:341-356
12. Bateson W (1894) Materials for the study of variation. Macmillan, London
13. Benesch R (1969) Zur Ontogenie und Morphologie von Artemia salina L. Zool Jb Anat 86:307-458
14. Bergström J, Hou X-G (2003) Arthropod origins. Bull Geosci Czech Geol Surv 78:323-334
15. Bergström J, Hou X-G (2005) Early Palaeozoic non-lamellipedian arthropods. In: Koenemann S, Jenner R (eds) Crustacea and arthropod relationships. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 73-93
16. Boudreaux HB (1979) Arthropod phylogeny - with special reference to insects. Wiley, New York
17. Boyan GS, Williams JLD, Posser S, Bräunig P (2002) Morphological and molecular data argue for the labrum being non-apical, articulated, and the appendage of the intercalary segment in the locust. Arthrop Struct Dev 31:65-76
18. Boyan GS, Bräunig P, Posser S, Williams JLD (2003) Embryonic development of the sensory innervation of the clypeo-labral complex: further support for serially homologous appendages in the locust. Arthrop Struct Dev 32:289-302
19. Brauer A (1895) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Skorpions. II. Z Wissensch Zool 59:351-433
20. Briggs DEG (1976) The arthropod Branchiocaris n. gen., Middle Cambrian, Burgess Shale, British Columbia. Bull Geol Soc Canada 264:1-29
21. Briggs DEG, Collins D (1999) The arthropod Alalcomenaeus cambricus Simonetta, from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Palaeontology 42:953-977
22. Brown S, Patel NH, Denell RE (1994) Embryonic expression of a single Tribolium engrailed homolog. Dev Genet 15:7-18
23. Browne WE, Price AL, Gerberding M, Patel NH (2005) Stages of embryonic development in the amphipod crustacean, Parhyale hawaiensis. Genesis 42:124-149
24. Bruce AEE, Shankland M (1998) Expression of the head gene Lox22-Otx in the leech Helobdella and the origin of the bilaterian body plan. Dev Biol 201:101-112
25. Bruckmoser P (1965) Embryologische Untersuchungen über den Kopfbau der Collembole Orchesella villosa L. Zool Jb Anat 82:299-364
26. Bruton DL, Whittington HB (1983) Emeraldella and Leanchoilia, two arthropods from the Burgess Shale, Middle Cambrian, British Columbia. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 300:553-585
27. Budd GE (1998) The morphology and phylogenetic significance of Kerygmachela kierkegaardi (Buen Formation, Lower Cambrian, N Greenland). Trans R Soc Edinburgh: Earth Sci 89:249-290
28. Budd GE (2001) Tardigrades as 'stem-group arthropods': The evidence from the Cambrian fauna. Zool Anz 240:265-279
29. Budd GE (2002) A palaeontological solution to the arthropod head problem. Nature 417:271-275
30. Butt FH (1960) Head development in the arthropods. Biol Rev 35:43-91
31. Casanova J-P (1996) Gnathophausia childressi, new species, a mysid from deep near-bottom waters off California, with remarks on the mouthparts of the genus Gnathophausia. J Crustac Biol 16:192-200
32. Chaudonneret J (1987) Evolution of the insect brain with special reference to the so-called tritocerebrum. In: Gupta AP (ed) Arthropod brain. Wiley, New York, pp 3-26
33. Chen J, Edgecombe GD, Ramsköld L, Zhou G (1995) Head segmentation in Early Cambrian Fuxianhuia: Implications for arthropod evolution. Science 268:1339-1343
34. Chen J, Waloszek D, Maas A (2004) A new 'great appendage' arthropod from the Lower Cambrian of China and homology of chelicerate chelicerae and raptorial antero-ventral appendages. Lethaia 37:3-20
35. Chipman AD, Arthur W, Akam M (2004) Early development and segment formation in the centipede, Strigamia maritima (Geophilomorpha). Evol Dev 6:78-89
36. Cohen SM (1993) Imaginal disc development. In: Martinez-Arias A, Bate M (eds) Drosophila development. Cold Spring Harbor, Cold Spring Harbor, pp 747-841
37. Cohen S, Jürgens G (1991) Drosophila headlines. Trends Genet 7:267-272
38. Cook CE, Smith ML, Telford MJ, Bastianello A, Akam M (2001) Hox genes and the phylogeny of arthropods. Curr Biol 11:759-763
39. Cotton TJ, Braddy SJ (2004) The phylogeny of arachnomorph arthropods and the origin of the Chelicerata. Trans R Soc Edinb: Earth Sci 94:169-193
40. Dahl E (1956) On the differentiation of the topography of the crustacean head. Acta Zool 37:123-192
41. Damen WGM (2002) Parasegmental organization of spider embryo implies that the parasegment is an evolutionary conserved entity in arthropod embryogenesis. Development 129:1239-1250
42. Damen WGM, Hausdorf M, Seyfarth E-A, Tautz D (1998) A conserved mode of head segmentation in arthropods revealed by the expression pattern of Hox genes in a spider. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:10665-10670
43. Darwin C (1854) A monograph on the subclass Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Balanidae, the Verrucidae, etc. Ray Society, London
44. Davis GK, D'Alessio JA, Patel NH (2005) Pax 3/7 genes reveal conservation and divergence in the arthropod segmentation hierarchy. Dev Biol 285:169-184
45. de Velasco B, Mandal L, Mkrtchyan M, Hartenstein V (2006) Subdivision and developmental fate of the head mesoderm in Drosophila melanogaster. Dev Genes Evol 216:39-51
46. de Rosa R, Prud'homme B, Balavoine G (2005) caudal and even-skipped in the annelid Platynereis dumerilii and the ancestry of posterior growth. Evol Dev 7:574-587
47. Dewel RA, Budd GE, Castano DF, Dewel WC (1999) The organization of the subesophageal nervous system in tardigrades: Insights into the evolution of the arthropod hypostome and tritocerebrum. Zool Anz 238:191-203
48. Dohle W (1964) Die Embryonalentwicklung von Glomeris marginata (Villers) im Vergleich zur Entwicklung anderer Diplopoden. Zool Jb Anat 81:241-310
49. Dong Y, Friedrich M (2005) Comparative analysis of wingless patterning in the embryonic grasshopper. Dev Genes Evol 215:177-197
50. Dove H, Stollewerk A (2003) Comparative analysis of neurogenesis in the myriapod Glomeris marginata (Diplopoda) suggests more similarities to chelicerates than to insects. Development 130:2161-2171
51. Dunlop JA, Arango CP (2004) Pycnogonid affinities: A review. J Zool Syst Evol Res 43:8-21
52. Edgecombe GD (2004) Morphological data, extant Myriapoda, and the myriapod stem-group. Contrib Zool 73:207-252
53. Edgecombe GD, Wilson GDF, Colgan DJ, Gray MR, Cassis G (2000) Arthropod cladistics: Combined analysis of histone H3 and U2 snRNA sequences and morphology. Cladistics 16:155-203
54. Eriksson BJ, Budd GE (2000) Onychophoran cephalic nerves and their bearing on our understanding of head segmentation and stem-group evolution of Arthropoda. Arthrop Struct Dev 29:197-209
55. Eriksson BJ, Tait NN, Budd GE (2003) Head development in the onychophoran Euperipatoides kanangrensis with particular reference to the central nervous system. J Morph 255:1-23
56. Fanenbruck M, Harzsch S (2005) A brain atlas of Godzilliognomus frondosus Yager, 1989 (Remipedia, Godzilliidae) and comparison with the brain of Speleonectes tulumensis Yager, 1987 (Remipedia, Speleonectidae): Implications for arthropod relationships. Arthrop Struct Dev 34:343-378
57. Fleig R (1990) Engrailed expression and body segmentation in the honey bee Apis mellifera. Roux's Arch Dev Biol 198:467-473
58. Fleig R (1994) Head segmentation in the embryo of the Colorado beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata as seen with the ant-en immunostaining. Roux's Arch Dev Biol 203:227-229
59. Fortey RA (2001) Trilobite systematics: The last 75 years. J Paleontol 75:1141-1151
60. Fortey RA, Whittington HB (1989) The Trilobita as a natural group. Hist Biol 2:125-138
61. François J (1969) Anatomie et morphologie céphalique des Protoures (Insecta Apterygota). Mém Mus Nation Hist Nat (NS) A (Zoologie) 59:1-144
62. Friedrich M, Benzer S (2000) Divergent decapentaplegic expression patterns in compound eye development and the evolution of insect metamorphosis. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) 288:39-55
63. Gehring WJ (2004) Historical perspective on the development and evolution of eyes and photoreceptors. Int J Dev Biol 48:707-717
64. Giorgianni MW, Patel NH (2004) Patterning of the branched head appendages in Schistocerca americana and Tribolium castaneum. Evol Dev 6:402-410
65. Giribet G (2003) Molecules, development and fossils in the study of metazoan evolution; Articulata versus Ecdysozoa revisited. Zoology 106:303-326
66. Giribet G, Edgecombe GD, Wheeler WC (2001) Arthropod phylogeny based on eight molecular loci and morphology. Nature 413:157-161
67. Giribet G, Richter S, Edgecombe GD, Wheeler WC (2005) The position of crustaceans within Arthropoda - evidence from nine molecular loci and morphology. In: Koenemann S, Jenner R (eds) Crustacea and arthropod relationships. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 307-352
68. Goloboff PA (1993) Estimating character weights during tree search. Cladistics 9:83-91
69. Goodrich EJ (1897) On the relation of the arthropod head to the annelid prostomium. Q J Microsc Sci 40:259-268
70. Haas MS, Brown SJ, Beeman RW (2001a) Pondering the procephalon: The segmental origin of the labrum. Dev Genes Evol 211:89-95
71. Haas MS, Brown SJ, Beeman RW (2001b) Homeotic evidence for the appendicular origin of the labrum in Tribolium castaneum. Dev Genes Evol 211:96-102
72. Haget A (1955) Expérience mettant en évidence l'origine paire du labre chez l'embryon du Coléoptère Leptinotarsa. C R Soc Biol 149:690-692
73. Hanström B (1928) Vergleichende Anatomie des Nervensystems der wirbellosen Tiere. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
74. Harada Y, Okai N, Taguchi S, Tagawa K, Humphreys T, Satoh N (2000) Developmental expression of the hemichordate otx ortholog. Mech Dev 91:337-339
75. Harzsch S (2004) The tritocerebrum of Euarthropoda: A "non-drosophilocentric" perspective. Evol Dev 6:303-309
76. Harzsch S, Glötzner J (2002) An immunohistochemical study on structure and development of the nervous system in the brine shrimp Artemia salina Linnaeus, 1758 (Branchiopoda, Anostraca) with remarks on the evolution of the arthropod brain. Arthrop Struct Dev 30:251-270
77. Harzsch S, Müller CHG, Wolf H (2005a) From variable to constant cell numbers: Cellular characteristics of the arthropod nervous system argue against a sister-group relationships of Chelicerata and "Myriapoda" but favour the Mandibulata concept. Dev Genes Evol 215:53-68
78. Harzsch S, Wildt M, Battelle B, Waloszek D (2005b) Immunohistochemical localization of neurotransmitters in the nervous system of larval Limulus polyphemus (Chelicerata, Xiphosura): Evidence for a conserved protocerebral architecture in Euarthropoda. Arthrop Struct Dev 34:327-342
79. Hatschek B (1878) Studien über Entwicklungsgeschichte der Anneliden. Arbeit Zool Inst Univ Wien, 57-128
80. Heider K (1913) Entwicklungsgeschichte und Morphologie der Wirbellosen. In: Hinneberg P (ed) Die Kultur der Gegenwart, Teil 3, Abt. 4, Bd. 2. Teubner, Leipzig, 176-332
81. Hertzel G (1984) Die Segmentation des Keimstreifens von Lithobius forficatus (L.) (Myriapoda, Chilopoda). Zool Jb Anat 112:369-386
82. Heymons R (1901) Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Scolopender. Zoologica 33:1-244
83. Hirth F, Therianos S, Loop T, Gehring WJ, Reichert H, Furukubo-Tokunaga K (1995) Developmental defects in brain segmentation caused by mutations of the homeobox genes orthodenticle and empty spiracles in Drosophila. Neuron 15:769-778
84. Holmgren N (1916) Zur vergleichenden Anatomie des Gehirns von Polychaeten, Onychophoren, Xiphosuren, Arachniden, Crustaceen, Myriapoden und Insekten. Vet Akad Handl Stockholm 56:1-303
85. Hou X-G (1999) New rare bivalved arthropods from the Lower Cambrian Chengjiang fauna, Yunnan, China. J Paleontol 73:102-116
86. Hou X-G, Bergström J (1997) Arthropods of the Lower Cambrian Chengjiang fauna, southwest China. Fossils Strata 45:1-116
87. Hou X-G, Aldridge RJ, Bergström J, Siveter DJ, Siveter DJ, Feng X-H (2004) The Cambrian Fossils of Chengjiang, China. The flowering of early animal life. Blackwell, Oxford
88. Hughes CL, Kaufman TC (2002) Exploring myriapod segmentation: The expression patterns of even-skipped, engrailed, and wingless in a centipede. Dev Biol 246:47-61
89. Hwang UW, Friedrich M, Tautz D, Park CJ, Kim W (2001) Mitochondrial protein phylogeny joins myriapods with chelicerates. Nature 413:154-157
90. Inoue Y, Niwa N, Mito T, Ohuchi H, Yoshika H, Noji S (2002) Expression patterns of hedgehog, wingless, and decapentaplegic during gut formation of Gryllus bimaculatus (cricket). Mech Dev 110:245-248
91. Jager M, Murienne J, Clabaut C, Deutsch J, Le Guyader H, Manuel M (2006) Homology of arthropod anterior appendages revealed by Hox gene expression in a sea spider. Nature 411:506-508
92. Janetschek H (1970) 3. Protura (Beintastler) In: Helmcke J-G, Starck D, Wermuth H (eds) Handbuch der Zoologie, IV. Band: Arthropoda-2. Hälfte: Insecta, 2. Teil: Spezielles. Parey, Berlin, pp 1-72
93. Janssen R, Prpic N-M, Damen WGM (2004) Gene expression suggests decoupled dorsal and ventral segmentation in the millipede Glomeris marginata (Myriapoda: Diplopoda). Dev Biol 268:89-104
94. Jenner RA, Scholtz G (2005) Playing another round of metazoan phylogenetics: Historical epistemology, sensitivity analysis, and the position of Arthropoda within the Metazoa on the basis of morphology. In: Koenemann S, Jenner R (eds) Crustacea and Arthropod relationships. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 355-385
95. Jockusch EL, Ober KA (2004) Hypothesis testing in evolutionary developmental biology: A case study from insect wings. J Heredity 95:382-396
96. Kadner D, Stollewerk A (2004) Neurogenesis in the chilopod Lithobius forficatus suggests more similarities to chelicerates than to insects. Dev Genes Evol 214:367-379
97. Kjellsvig-Waering EN (1986) A restudy of the fossil Scorpionida of the world. Palaeontogr Am 55:1-287
98. Kuratani S (2003) Evolutionary developmental biology and vertebrate head segmentation: A perspective from developmental constraint. Theory Biosci 122:230-251
99. Kusche K, Hembach A, Hagner-Holler S, Genauer W, Burmester T (2003) Complete subunit sequences, structure and evolution of the 6×6-mer hemocyanin from the common house centipede, Scutigera coleoptrata. Eur J Biochem 270:2860-2868
100. Lauterbach K-E (1973) Schlüsselereignisse in der Evolution der Stammgruppe der Euarthropoda. Zool Beitr (NF) 19:251-299
101. Lauterbach K-E (1980a) Schlüsselereignisse in der Evolution des Grundplans der Mandibulata (Arthropoda). Abh Naturwiss Ver Hamburg NF 23:105-161
102. Lauterbach K-E (1980b) Schlüsselereignisse in der Evolution des Grundplans der Arachnata (Arthropoda). Abh Naturwiss Ver Hamburg NF 23:163-327
103. Li Y, Brown SJ, Hausdorf B, Tautz D, Denell RE, Finkelstein R (1996) Two orthodenticle -related genes in the short-germ beetle Tribolium castaneum. Dev Genes Evol 206:35-45
104. Maas A, Waloszek D (2001) Cambrian derivatives of the early arthropod stem lineage, pentastomids, tardigrades and lobopodians - an 'Orsten' perspective. Zool Anz 240:451-459
105. Maas A, Waloszek D, Chen J, Braun A, Wang X, Huang D (2004) Phylogeny and life habits of early arthropods - predation in the Early Cambrian sea. Prog Nat Sci 14:158-166
106. Mallatt JM, Garey JR, Shultz JW (2004) Ecdysozoan phylogeny and Bayesian inference: First use of nearly complete 28S and 18S rRNA gene sequences to classify the arthropods and their kin. Mol Phylogenet Evol 31:178-191
107. Manton SM (1928) On the embryology of the crustacean Nebalia bipes. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 223:163-238
108. Manton SM (1949) Studies on the Onychophora VII. The early embryonic stages of Peripatopsis and some general considerations concerning the morphology and phylogeny of the Arthropoda. Phil Trans R Soc B 233:483-580
109. Manzanares M, Williams TA, Marco R, Garesse R (1996) Segmentation in the crustacean Artemia: Engrailed staining studied with an antibody raised against the Artemia protein. Roux's Arch Dev Biol 205:424-431
110. Maxmen A, Browne WE, Martindale MQ, Giribet G (2005) Neuroanatomy of sea spiders implies an appendicular origin of the protocerebral segment. Nature 437:1144-1148
111. Mayer G, Koch M (2005) Ultrastructure and fate of the nephridial anlagen in the antennal segment of Epiperipatus biolleyi (Onychophora, Peripatidae) evidence for the onychophoran antennae being modified legs. Arthrop Struct Dev 34:471-480
112. Meisenheimer J (1902) Beiträge zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pantopoden. I. Die Entwicklung von Ammothea echinata Hodge bis zur Ausbildung derLarvenform. Zeitschr Wiss Zool 72:191-248
113. Minelli A (2003) The origin and evolution of appendages. Int J Dev Biol 47:573-581
114. Minelli A, Fusco G (2004) Evo-devo perspectives on segmentation: Model organisms, and beyond. Trends Ecol Evol 19:423-429
115. Mittmann B, Scholtz G (2001) Distal-less expression in embryos of Limulus polyphemus (Chelicerata, Xiphosura) and Lepisma saccharina (Insecta, Zygentoma) suggests as role in the development of mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and the CNS. Dev Genes Evol 211:232-243
116. Mittmann B, Scholtz G (2003) Development of the nervous system in the "head" of Limulus polyphemus (Chelicerata, Xiphosura): morphological evidence for a correspondence between the segments of the chelicerae and of the (first) antennae of Mandibulata. Dev Genes Evol 213:9-17
117. Müller KJ, Walossek D (1986) Martinssonia elongata gen. et sp.n., a crustacean-like euarthropod from the Upper Cambrian 'Orsten' of Sweden. Zool Scr 15:73-92
118. Nederbragt AJ, te Welscher, P, van den Driesche S, van Loon A, Dictus WJAG (2002) Novel and conserved roles for orthodenticle/otx and orthopedia/otp orthologs in the gastropod mollusc Patella vulgata. Dev Genes Evol 212:330-337
119. Negrisolo E, Minelli A, Valle G (2004) The mitochondrial genome of the house centipede Scutigera and the monophyly versus paraphyly of myriapods. Mol Bio Evol 21:770-780
120. Nielsen C (2001) Animal evolution. Interrelationships of the living phyla, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford
121. Nielsen C (2005a) Trochophora larvae and adult body regions in annelids: some conclusions. Hydrobiologia 535/536:23-24
122. Nielsen C (2005b) Larval and adult brains. Evol Dev 7:483-489
123. Niwa N, Saitoh M, Ohuchi H, Yoshioka H, Noji S (1997) Correlation between Distal-less expression patterns and structures of appendages in development of the two-spotted cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus. Zool Sci 14:115-125
124. Northcutt RG (2005) The new head hypothesis revisited. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) 304B:274-297
125. Nulsen C, Nagy LM (1999) The role of wingless in the development of multibranched crustacean limbs. Dev Genes Evol 209:340-348
126. Oishi S (1959) Studies on the teloblasts in the decapod embryo I. Origin of teloblasts in Heptacarpus rectirostris (Stimpson). Embryol 4:283-309
127. Olesen J (2004) On the ontogeny of the Branchiopoda (Crustacea): contribution of development to phylogeny and classification. In: Scholtz G (ed) Evolutionary developmental biology of Crustacea. Balkema, Lisse, pp 217-269
128. Olesen J, Richter S, Scholtz G (2001) The evolutionary transformation of phyllopodous to stenopodous limbs in the Branchiopoda (Crustacea) - is there a common mechanism for early limb development in arthropods? Int J Dev Biol 45:869-876
129. Olsson L, Ericsson, R, Cerny R (2005) Vertebrate head development: segmentation, novelties, and homology. Theory Biosci 124:145-163
130. Osborne PW, Dearden PK (2005) Expression of Pax group III genes in the honey bee (Apis mellifera). Dev Genes Evol 215:499-508
131. Page DT (2004) A mode of arthropod brain evolution suggested by Drosophila commissure development. Evol Dev 6:25-31
132. Panganiban G, Sebring A, Nagy L, Carroll S (1995) The development of crustacean limbs and the evolution of arthropods. Science 270:1363-1366
133. Patel NH, Kornberg TB, Goodman CS (1989) Expression of engrailed during segmentation in grasshopper and crayfish. Development 107:201-212
134. Paulus H, Weygoldt P (1996) Artrhropoda, Gliederfüβer. In: Westheide W, Rieger R (eds) Spezielle Zoologie, Teil 1: Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, pp 411-419
135. Peterson MD, Popadic A, Kaufman TC (1998) The expression of two engrailed -related genes in an apterygote insect and a phylogenetic analysis of insect engrailed -related genes. Dev Genes Evol 208:547-557
136. Pflugfelder O (1948) Entwicklung von Paraperipatus anboinensis n. sp. Zool Jb Anat 69:443-492
137. Pisani D, Poling LL, Lyons-Weiler M, Hedges SB (2004) The colonization of land by animals: Molecular phylogeny and divergence times among arthropods. BMC Biol 2:1-10
138. Popadic A, Panganiban G, Rusch D, Shear WA, Kaufman TC (1998) Molecular evidence for the gnathobasic derivation of arthropod mandibles and for the appendicular origin of the labrum and other structures. Dev Genes Evol 208:142-150
139. Pross A (1966) Untersuchungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Araneae (Pardosa hortensis (Thorell)) unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des vorderen Prosomaabschnitts. Z Morph Ökol Tiere 58:38-108
140. Prpic N-M, Tautz D (2003) The expression of the proximodistal axis patterning genes Distal-less and dachshund in the appendages of Glomeris marginata (Myriapoda: Diplopoda) suggests a special role of these genes in patterning the head appendages. Dev Biol 260:97-112
141. Prpic N-M, Wigand B, Damen WGM, Klingler M (2001) Expression of dachshund in wild-type and Distal-less mutant Tribolium corroborates serial homologies in insect appendages. Dev Genes Evol 211:467-477
142. Prpic N-M, Janssen R, Wigand B, Klingler M, Damen WGM (2003) Gene expression in spider appendages reveals reversal of exd/hth spatial specificity, altered leg gap gene dynamics, and suggests divergent distal morphogen signaling. Dev Biol 265:119-140
143. Prud'homme B, de Rosa R, Arendt D, Julien J-F, Pajaziti R, Dorresteijn AWC, Adoutte A, Wittbrodt J, Balavoine G (2003) Arthropod-like expression patterns of engrailed and wingless in the annelid Platynereis dumerilii suggest a role in segment formation. Curr Biol 13:1876-1881
144. Pultz MA, Pitt JN, Alto NM (1999) Extensive zygotic control of the anteroposterior axis in the wasp Nasonia vitripennis. Development 126:701-710
145. Pultz MA, Westendorf L, Gale SD, Hawkins K, Lynch J, Pitt JN, Reeves NL, Yao JCY, Small S, Desplan C, Leaf DS (2005) A major role for zygotic hunchback in patterning the Nasonia embryo. Development 132:3705-3715
146. Ramsköld L, Edgecombe GD (1991) Trilobite monophyly revisited. Hist Biol 4:267-283
147. Rempel JG (1975) The evolution of the insect head: The endless dispute. Quaest Ent 11:7-25
148. Richter S, Scholtz G (2001) Phylogenetic analysis of the Malacostraca (Crustacea). J Zool Syst Evol Res 39:113-136
149. Richter S, Wirkner C (2004) Kontroversen in der phylogenetischen Systematik der Euarthropoda. Sber Ges Naturf Freunde Berlin (NF) 43:73-102
150. Rogers BT, Kaufman TC (1997) Structure of the insect head in ontogeny and phylogeny: A view from Drosophila. Int Rev Cytol 174:1-84
151. Rogers BT, Peterson MD, Kaufman TC (2002) The development and evolution of insect mouthparts as revealed by the expression patterns of gnathocephalic genes. Evol Dev 4:96-110
152. Rohrschneider I (1968) Beiträge zur Entwicklung des Vorderkopfes und der Mundregion von Periplaneta americana. Zool Jb Anat 85:537-578
153. Sanchez-Salazar J, Pletcher MT, Bennett RL, Brown SJ, Dandamundi TJ, Denell RE, Doctor JS (1996) The Tribolium decapentaplagic gene is similar in sequence, structure, and expression to the Drosophila dpp gene. Dev Genes Evol 206:237-246
154. Schmidt-Ott U, Technau GM (1992) Expression of en and wg in the embryonic head and brain of Drosophila indicates a refolded band of seven segment remnants. Development 116:111-125
155. Schmidt-Ott U, Sander K, Technau GM (1994a) Expression of engrailed in embryos of a beetle and five dipteran species with special reference to the terminal regions. Roux Arch Dev Biol 203:298-303
156. Schmidt-Ott U, González-Gaitán M, Jäckle H, Technau GM (1994b) Number, identity, and sequence of the Drosophila head segments as revealed by neural elements and their deletion patterns in mutants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:8363-8367
157. Schmidt-Rhaesa A, Bartolomaeus T, Lemburg C, Ehlers U, Garey JR (1998) The position of the Arthropoda in the phylogenetic system. J Morphol 238:263-285
158. Schneuwly S, Klemenz R, Gehring WJ (1987) Redesigning the body plan of Drosophila by ectopic expression of the homeotic gene Antennapedia. Nature 325:816-818
159. Scholl G (1963) Embryologische Untersuchungen an Tanaidaceen (Heterotanais oerstedi Kröyer). Zool Jb Anat 80:500-554
160. Scholl G (1969) Die Embryonalentwicklung des Kopfes und Prothorax von Carausius morosus Br. (Insecta, Phasmida). Z Morph Tiere 65:1-142
161. Scholl G (1977) Beiträge zur Embryonalentwicklung von Limulus polyphemus L. (Chelicerata, Xiphosura). Zoomorphologie 86:99-154
162. Scholtz G (1995) Head segmentation in Crustacea - an immunocytochemical study. Zoology 98:104-114
163. Scholtz G (1997) Cleavage, germ band formation and head segmentation: the ground pattern of the Euarthropoda. In: Fortey RA, Thomas RH (eds) Arthropod relationships. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 317-332
164. Scholtz G (2001) Evolution of developmental patterns in arthropods-the contribution of gene expression to morphology and phylogenetics. Zoology 103:99-111
165. Scholtz G (2002) The Articulata hypothesis - or what is a segment? Organ Divers Evol 2:197-215
166. Scholtz G (2003) Is the taxon Articulata obsolete? Arguments in favour of a close relationship between annelids and arthropods. In: Legakis A, Sfenthourakis S, Polymeni R, Thessalou-Legaki M (eds) Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Zoology, Athens 2000. Penfolds, Sofia, pp 489-501
167. Scholtz G (2004) Baupläne versus ground patterns, phyla versus monophyla: Aspects of patterns and processes in evolutionary developmental biology. In: Scholtz G (ed) Evolutionary developmental biology of Crustacea. Balkema, Lisse, pp 3-16
168. Scholtz G (2005) Homology and ontogeny: Pattern and process in comparative developmental biology. Theory Biosci 124:121-143
169. Scholtz G, Edgecombe GD (2005) Heads, Hox and the phylogenetic position of trilobites. In: Koenemann S, Jenner R (eds) Crustacea and arthropod relationships. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 139-165
170. Scholtz G, Patel NH, Dohle W (1994) Serially homologous engrailed stripes are generated via different cell lineages in the germ band of amphipod crustaceans (Malacostraca, Peracarida). Int J Dev Biol 38:471-478
171. Scholtz G, Mittman B, Gerberding M (1998) The pattern of Distal-less expression in the mouthparts of crustaceans, myriapods and insects: New evidence for a gnathobasic mandible and the common origin of Mandibulata. Int J Dev Biol 42:801-810
172. Schoppmeier M, Damen WGM (2001) Double-stranded RNA interference in the spider Cupiennius salei: The role of Distal-less is evolutionarily conserved in arthropod appendage formation. Dev Genes Evol 211:76-82
173. Schröder R (2003) The genes orthodenticle and hunchback substitute for bicoid in the beetle Tribolium. Nature 422:621-625
174. Seaver EC (2003) Segmentation: Mono or polyphyletic? Int J Dev Biol 47:583-595
175. Seaver EC, Kaneshige LM (2006) Expression of "segmentation" genes during larval and juvenile development in the polychaetes Capitella sp. I and H. elegans. Dev Biol 289:179-194
176. Seaver EC, Thamm K, Hill SD (2005) Growth patterns during segmentation in the two polychaete annelids, Capitella sp. I and Hydroides elegans: comparisons at distinct life history stages. Evol Dev 7:312-326
177. Selden PA (1981) Functional morphology of the prosoma of Baltoeurypterus tetragonophthalmus (Fischer) (Chelicerata: Eurypterida). Trans R Soc Edinburgh: Earth Sci 72:9-48
178. Semmler H (2005) Immuncytochemische Studien zur larvalen Myo- und Neuroanatomie von Balanus improvisus (Crustacea, Cirripedia, Thecostraca). Diplom Thesis: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
179. Shiga Y, Yasumoto R, Yamagata H, Hayashi S (2002) Evolving role of Antennapedia protein in arthropod limb patterning. Development 129:3555-3561
180. Siewing R (1963) Das Problem der Arthropodenkopfsegmentierung. Zool Anz 170:429-468
181. Siewing R (1969) Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte der Tiere. Parey, Hamburg
182. Simonnet F, Deutsch J, Quéinnec E (2004) hedgehog is a segment polarity gene in a crustacean and a chelicerate. Dev Genes Evol 214:527-545
183. Snodgrass RE (1960) Facts and theories concerning the insect head. Smithson Misc Collect 142:1-61
184. Starck D (1963) Die Metamerie des Kopfes der Wirbeltiere. Zool Anz 170:393-428
185. Stein M, Waloszek D, Maas A (2005) Oelandicaris oelandica and the stem lineage of Crustacea. In: Koenemann S, Jenner R (eds) Crustacea and arthropod relationships. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 55-71
186. Størmer L (1944) On the relationships and phylogeny of fossil and recent Arachnomorpha. Skrift Utgitt Norske Vidensk-akad Oslo I Math-Naturvitensk Klasse 5:1-158
187. Tamarelle M (1984) Transient rudiments of second antennae on the "intercalary" segment of embryos of Anurida maritima Guer. (Collembola: Arthropleona) and Hyphantria cunea Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) Int J Insect Morphol Embryol 13:331-336
188. Tautz D (2004) Segmentation. Dev Cell 7:301-312
189. Telford MJ, Thomas RH (1998) Expression of homeobox genes shows chelicerate arthropods retain their deutocerebral segment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:10671-10675
190. Thomas RH, Telford MJ (1999) Appendage development in embryos of the oribatid mite Archegozetes longisetus (Acari, Oribatei, Thrypochthoniidae) Acta Zool 80:193-200
191. Tiegs OW (1940) The embryology and affinities of the Symphyla, based on a study of Hanseniella agilis. Q J Microsc Sci 82:1-225
192. Tomsa JM, Langeland JA (1999) Otx expression during lamprey embryogenesis provides insights into the evolution of the vertebrate head and jaw. Dev Biol 207:26-37
193. Ullmann SL (1964) The origin and structure of the mesoderm and the formation of the coelomic sacs in Tenebrio molitor L (Insecta, Coleoptera). Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 747:245-276
194. Umesono Y, Watanabe K, Agata K (1999) Distinct structural domains in the planarian brain defined by the expression of evolutionarily conserved homeobox genes. Dev Genes Evol 209:31-39
195. Ungerer P, Wolff C (2005) External morphology of limb development in the amphipod Orchestia cavimana (Crustacea, Malacostraca, Peracarida). Zoomorphology 124:89-99
196. Urbach R, Technau G (2003a) Early steps in building the insect brain: neuroblasts formation and segmental patterning in the developing brain
197. Urbach R, Technau G (2003b) Molecular markers for identified neuroblasts in the developing brain of Drosophila. Development 130:3621-3637
198. Urbach R, Technau G, Breidbach O (2003) Spatial and temporal pattern of neuroblasts, proliferation, and engrailed expression during early brain development. Arthrop Struct Dev 32:125-140
199. Vilpoux K, Waloszek D (2003) Larval development and morphogenesis of the sea spider Pycnogonum litorale (Ström, 1762) and the tagmosis of the body of Pantopoda. Arthrop Struct Dev 32:349-383
200. von Wistinghausen C (1891) Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung von Nereis dumerilii. Mitt Zool Stat Neapel 10:41-74
201. Wada S (1965) Analyse der Kopf-Hals-Region von Tachycines (Saltatoria) in morphogenetische Einheiten. II. Mitteilung: Experimentell-teratologische Befunde am Kopfskelett mit Berücksichtigung des zentralen Nervensystems. Zool Jb Anat 83:235-326
202. Wägele J-W, Misof B (2001) On the quality of evidence in phylogeny reconstruction: A reply to Zrzavý's defence of the 'Ecdysozoa' hypothesis. J Zool Syst Evol Res 39:165-176
203. Walossek D (1993) The Upper Cambrian Rehbachiella and the phylogeny of Branchiopoda and Crustacea. Fossils Strata 32:3-202
204. Waloszek D (2003) Cambrian 'Orsten'-type preserved arthropods and the phylogeny of Crustacea. In: Legakis A, Sfenthourakis, S, Polymeni R and Thessalou-Legaki M (eds) Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Zoology, Athens 2000:69-87
205. Waloszek D, Dunlop JA (2002) A larval sea spider (Arthropoda: Pycnogonida) from the Upper Cambrian 'Orsten' of Sweden, and the phylogenetic position of pycnogonids. Palaeontology 45:421-446
206. Walossek D, Müller KJ (1990) Upper Cambrian stem-lineage crustaceans and their bearing upon the monophyletic origin of Crustacea and the position of Agnostus. Lethaia 23:409-427
207. Waloszek D, Chen J, Maas A, Wang X (2005) Early Cambrian arthropods - new insights into arthropod head and structural evolution. Arthrop Struct Dev 34:189-205
208. Weber H (1952) Morphologie, Histologie und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Articulaten II. Die Kopfsegmentierung und die Morphologie des Kopfes überhaupt. Fortschr Zool 9:18-231
209. Weygoldt P (1985) Ontogeny of the arachnid central nervous system. In: Barth FG (ed) Neurobiology of arachnids. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 20-37
210. Whittington HB (1975) Trilobites with appendages from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale, British Columbia. Fossils Strata 4:97-136
211. Whittington HB (1980) Exoskeleton, moult stage, appendage morphology and habits of the Middle Cambrian trilobite Olenoides serratus. Palaeontology 23:171-204
212. Winter G (1980) Beiträge zur Morphologie und Embryologie des vorderen Körperabschnitts (Cephalosoma) der Pantopoda Gerstaecker, 1863. Z Zoolog Syst Evol Forsch 18:27-61
213. Wolff C (2004) Die Beinentwicklung des amphipoden Krebses Orchestia cavimana (Peracarida, Malacostraca - eine zellgenealogische Studie. Doctoral Thesis, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
214. Woltereck R (1905) Zur Kopffrage der Anneliden. Verh Dtsch Zool Ges 15:154-186
215. Yamamoto DS, Sumitani M, Tojo K, Lee JM, Hatakeyama M (2004) Cloning of a decapentaplegic orthologue from the sawfly, Athalia rosae (Hymenoptera) and its expression in the embryonic appendages. Dev Genes Evol 214:128-133
216. Younossi-Hartenstein A, Green P, Liaw G-J, Rudolph K, Lengyel J, Hartenstein V (1997) Control of early neurogenesis of the Drosophila brain by the head gap genes tll, otd, ems, and btd. Dev Biol 182:270-283