The evolution of arid ecosystems in eastern Africa

Journal of Arid Environments

Volumn 66, Issue 3 SPEC. ISS., 2006, Pages 564-584

  Bobe, R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO   (United States)

Author keywords

Africa; Bovidae; Mammalian evolution; Megafauna; Paleoecology; Paleoenvironments; Turkana basin

Indexed keywords

ARID ENVIRONMENT; CENOZOIC; CLIMATE EFFECT; EOCENE; GRASSLAND; HERBIVORE; WOODLAND;

AFRICA;

ACACIA; ANIMALIA; BOVIDAE; MAMMALIA;

EID: 33646430842     PISSN: 01401963     EISSN: 1095922X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.010     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Adegoke O.S., Jan du Chêne R.E., Agumanu A.E., and Ajayi P.O. Palynology and age of the Kerri-Kerri Formation, Nigeria. Revista Española de Micropaleontología 10 (1978) 267-282
2. Andrews P., and O'Brien E.M. Climate, vegetation, and predictable gradients in mammal species richness in southern Africa. Journal of Zoology 251 (2000) 205-231
3. Andrews P., and Van Couvering J.A. Paleoenvironments in the East African Miocene. In: Szaley F.S. (Ed). Approaches to Primate Paleobiology (1975), Karger, Basel 62-103
4. Behrensmeyer A.K., Bobe R., and Alemseged Z. Key issues in the analysis of faunal change across the East African Pliocene. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 36 (2003) 64
5. Belsky A.J. Spatial and temporal landscape patterns in arid and semi-arid African savannas. In: Hansson L., Fahrig L., and Merriam G. (Eds). Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes (1995), Chapman & Hall, London 31-56
6. Bigalke R.C. Present-day mammals of Africa. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1-16
7. Bishop L.C. Suid paleoecology and habitat preferences at African Pliocene and Pleistocene hominid localities. In: Bromage T.G., and Schrenk F. (Eds). African Biogeography, Climate Change, and Human Evolution (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford 216-225
8. Black C.C. Anthracotheriidae. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 423-434
9. Bobe, R., 1997. Hominid environments in the Pliocene: an analysis of fossil mammals from the lower Omo valley, Ethiopia. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.
10. Bobe R., and Behrensmeyer A.K. The expansion of grassland ecosystems in Africa in relation to mammalian evolution and the origin of the genus Homo. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 207 (2004) 399-420
11. Bobe R., and Eck G.G. Responses of African bovids to Pliocene climatic change. Paleobiology Memoirs, Paleobiology 27 (2001) 1-47
12. Bobe R., Behrensmeyer A.K., and Chapman R.E. Faunal change, environmental variability and late Pliocene hominin evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 42 (2002) 475-497
13. Bown T.M., Kraus M.J., Wing S.L., Fleagle J.G., Tiffney B.H., Simons E.L., and Vondra C.F. The Fayum primate forest revisited. Journal of Human Evolution 11 (1982) 603-632
14. Brown F.H. Development of Pliocene and Pleistocene chronology of the Turkana Basin, East Africa, and its relation to other sites. In: Corruccini R.S., and Ciochon R.L. (Eds). Integrative Paths to the Past (1994), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 285-312
15. Brown F.H. The potential of the Turkana Basin for paleoclimatic reconstruction in East Africa. In: Vrba E.S., Denton G.H., Partridge T.C., and Burckle L.H. (Eds). Paleoclimate and Evolution with Emphasis on Human Origins (1995), Yale University Press, New Haven 319-330
16. Brown F.H., and Feibel C.S. Stratigraphy, depositional environments and palaeogeography of the Koobi Fora Formation. In: Harris J.M. (Ed). Koobi Fora Research Project, vol. 3: The Fossil Ungulates: Geology, Fossil Artiodactyls, and Paleoenvironments (1991), Clarendon Press, Oxford 1-30
17. Brown F.H., and McDougall I. Geologic setting and age. In: Walker A., and Leakey R.E. (Eds). The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton (1993), Harvard University Press, Cambridge 9-20
18. Brown F.H., McDougall I., Davis T., and Maier R. An integrated Plio-Pleistocene chronology for the Turkana Basin. In: Delson E. (Ed). Ancestors: The Hard Evidence (1985), Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York 82-90
19. Bunn, H.T., 1982. Meat-eating and human evolution: studies on the diet and subsistence patterns of Plio-Pleistocene hominids in East Africa. Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley.
20. Cane M.A., and Molnar P. Closing the Indonesian seaway as a precursor to East African aridification around 3-4 million years ago. Nature 411 (2001) 157-162
21. Cerling T.E. Development of grasslands and savannas in East Africa during the Neogene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 97 (1992) 241-247
22. Cerling T.E., Bowman J.R., and O'Neil J.R. An isotopic study of a fluvial-lacustrine sequence: the Plio-Pleistocene Koobe Fora sequence, East Africa. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 63 (1988) 335-368
23. Cerling T.E., Quade J., Ambrose S.H., and Sikes N.E. Fossil soils, grasses, and carbon isotopes from Fort Ternan, Kenya: grassland or woodland. Journal of Human Evolution 21 (1991) 295-306
24. Cerling T.E., Wang Y., and Quade J. Expansion of C4 ecosystems as an indicator of global ecological change in the Late Miocene. Nature 361 (1993) 344-345
25. Cerling T.E., Harris J.M., MacFadden B.J., Leakey M.G., Quade J., Eisenmann V., and Ehleringer J.R. Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary. Nature 389 (1997) 153-158
26. Chesters K.I.M. The Miocene flora of Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya. Palaeontographica 101B (1957) 30-71
27. Churcher C.S., and Richardson M.L. Equidae. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 379-422
28. Coxall H.K., Wilson P.A., Palike H., Lear C.H., and Backman J. Rapid stepwise onset of Antarctic glaciation and deeper calcite compensation in the Pacific Ocean. Nature 433 (2005) 53-57
29. In: Damuth J., and MacFadden B.J. (Eds). Body Size in Mammalian Paleobiology: Estimation and Biological Implications (1990), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
30. deMenocal P.B. Plio-Pleistocene African climate. Science 270 (1995) 53-59
31. deMenocal P.B., and Bloemendal J. Plio-Pleistocene climatic variability in subtropical Africa and the paleoenvironment of hominid evolution: a combined data-model approach. In: Vrba E.S., Denton G.H., Partridge T.C., and Burckle L.H. (Eds). Paleoclimate and Evolution with Emphasis on Human Origins (1995), Yale University Press, New Haven 262-288
32. Dorst J., and Dandelot P. A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa (1970), Collins, London
33. Drake R.E., Van Couvering J.A., Pickford M.H., Curtis G.H., and Harris J.A. New chronology for the early Miocene mammalian faunas of Kisingiri, western Kenya. Journal of the Geological Society of London 145 (1988) 479-491
34. Dupont L.M., and Leroy S.A. Steps toward drier climatic conditions in Northwestern Africa during the Upper Neogene. In: Vrba E.S., Denton G.H., Partridge T.C., and Burckle L.H. (Eds). Paleoclimate and Evolution with Emphasis on Human Origins (1995), Yale University Press, New Haven 289-298
35. Eisenmann V. Family Equidae. In: Harris J.M. (Ed). Koobi Fora Research Project, vol. 2: The Fossil Ungulates: Proboscidea, Perissodactyla, and Suidae (1983), Clarendon Press, Oxford 156-214
36. Eisenmann V. Les équidés des gisements de a vallée de l'Omo en Éthiopie. In: Coppens Y., and Howell F.C. (Eds). Les Faunes Plio-Pléistocène de la Basse Vallée de l'Omo (Ethiopie) vol. 1 (1985), CNRS, Paris 13-55
37. Feibel C.S. Stratigraphy and depositional history of the Lothagam sequence. In: Leakey M.G., and Harris J.M. (Eds). Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa (2003), Columbia University Press, New York 17-29
38. Feibel C.S. Stratigraphy and depositional setting of the Pliocene Kanapoi Formation, lower Kerio valley, Kenya. In: Harris J.M., and Leakey M.G. (Eds). Geology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Early Pliocene Site of Kanapoi, Northern Kenya vol. 498 (2003), Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles 9-20
39. Feibel C.S., and Brown F.H. Microstratigraphy and paleoenvironments. In: Walker A., and Leakey R.E. (Eds). The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton (1993), Harvard University Press, Cambridge 21-39
40. Feibel C.S., Brown F.H., and McDougall I. Stratigraphic context of fossil hominids from the Omo Group deposits: Northern Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78 (1989) 595-622
41. Feibel C.S., Harris J.M., and Brown F.H. Palaeoenvironmental context for the late Neogene of the Turkana Basin. In: Harris J.M. (Ed). Koobi Fora Research Project, vol. 3: The Fossil Ungulates: Geology, Fossil Artiodactyls, and Paleoenvironments (1991), Clarendon Press, Oxford 321-370
42. Foley J.A., DeFries R., Asner G.P., Barford C., Bonan G., Carpenter S.R., Chapin F.S., Coe M.T., Daily G.C., Gibbs H.K., Helkowski J.H., Holloway T., Howard E.A., Kucharik C.J., Monfreda C., Patz J.A., Prentice I.C., Ramankutty N., and Snyder P.K. Global consequences of land use. Science 309 (2005) 570-574
43. Gentry A.W. Bovidae. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 540-572
44. Gheerbrant E. Les Mammifères Paléocènes du Bassin d'Ouarzazate (Maroc): I. Introduction générale et Palaeorycticidae. Palaeontographica 224 (1992) 67-132
45. Gheerbrant E. Les Mammifères Paléocènes du Bassin d'Ouarzazate (Maroc): III. Adapisoriculidae et autres mammifères (Carnivora, Creodonta, Condylarthra, Ungulata et incertae sedis). Palaeontographica 237 (1994) 39-132
46. Gheerbrant E., Sudre J., and Cappetta H. A Palaeocene proboscidean from Morocco. Nature 383 (1996) 68-70
47. Gichohi H., Gakahu C., and Mwangi E. Savanna ecosystems. In: McClanahan T.R., and Young T.P. (Eds). East African Ecosystems and their Conservation (1996), Oxford University Press, Oxford 273-298
48. Greenacre M.J., and Vrba E.S. Graphical display and interpretation of antelope census data in African wildlife areas, using correspondence analysis. Ecology 65 (1984) 984-997
49. Guinet P., El Sabrouty N., Soliman H.A., and Omran A.M. Etudes des caractères de pollen des Légumineuses. Mimosoideae des sédiments Tertiaires du nord-ouest de l'Egypte. Mémoire et Travaux de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Inst. Montpellier 17 (1987) 159-171
50. Harris J., and Van Couvering J.A. Mock aridity and the paleoecology of volcanically influenced ecosystems. Geology 23 (1995) 593-596
51. Harris J.M., and Cerling T.E. Dietary adaptations of extant and Neogene African suids. Journal of Zoology 256 (2002) 45-54
52. Harris J.M., and Leakey M.G. The faunal context. In: Walker A., and Leakey R.E. (Eds). The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton (1993), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 54-60
53. In: Harris J.M., and Leakey M.G. (Eds). Geology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Early Pliocene Site of Kanapoi, Northern Kenya vol. 498 (2003), Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles
54. Harris J.M., Brown F.H., and Leakey M.G. Stratigraphy and paleontology of Pliocene and Pleistocene localities west of Lake Turkana (1988), Kenya Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles
55. Haug G.H., and Tiedemann R. Effects of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation. Nature 393 (1998) 673-676
56. Haug G.H., Tiedemann R., Zahn R., and Ravelo A.C. Pole of Panama uplift on oceanic freshwater balance. Geology 29 (2001) 207-210
57. Herendeen P.S., and Jacobs B.F. Fossil legumes from the Middle Eocene (46.0 Ma) Mahenge Flora of Singida, Tanzania. American Journal of Botany 87 (2000) 1358-1366
58. Hooijer D.A. Rhinocerotidae. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 371-378
59. Hooijer D.A., and Churcher C.S. Perissodactyla of the Omo Group deposits. In: Coppens Y., and Howell F.C. (Eds). Les Faunes Plio-Pléistocène de la Basse Vallée de l'Omo (Ethiopie) vol. 1 (1985), CNRS, Paris 97-117
60. Jacobs B.F. Palaeobotanical studies from tropical Africa: relevance to the evolution of forest, woodland and savannah biomes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B 359 (2004) 1573-1583
61. Jacobs B.F., and Kabuye C.H. A middle Miocene (12.2 myr old) forest in the East African Rift Valley, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 16 (1987) 147-155
62. Jacobs B.F., Kingston J.D., and Jacobs L.L. The origin of grass-dominated ecosystems. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86 (1999) 590-643
63. Kappelman J., Rasmussen D.T., Sanders W.J., Feseha M., Bown T., Copeland P., Crabaugh J., Fleagle J.G., Glantz M., Gordon A., Jacobs B.F., Maga M., Muldoon K., Pan A., Pyne L., Richmond B.G., Ryan T., Seiffert E.R., Sen S., Todd L., Wiemann M., and Winkler A.J. Oligocene mammals from Ehtiopia and faunal exchange between Afro-Arabia and Eurasia. Nature 426 (2003) 549-552
64. Kennett J.P. A review of polar climatic evolution during the Neogene, based on the marine sediment record. In: Vrba E.S., Denton G.H., Partridge T.C., and Burckle L.H. (Eds). Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins (1995), Yale University Press, New Haven 49-64
65. Kingdon J. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals (1997), Academic Press, San Diego
66. Kingdon J. Lowly Origins: When, Where, and Why Our Ancestors First Stood Up (2003), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
67. Kingston J.D., Marino B.D., and Hill A. Isotopic evidence for Neogene hominid paleoenvironments in the Kenya rift valley. Science 264 (1994) 955-959
68. Laporte L.F., and Zihlman A.L. Plate, climate and hominid evolution. South African Journal of Science 79 (1983) 96-110
69. Laws R.M. Elephants as agents of habitat and landscape change in East Africa. Oikos 21 (1970) 1-15
70. In: Leakey M.G., and Harris J.M. (Eds). Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa (2003), Columbia University Press, New York
71. Lear C.H., Elderfield H., and Wilson P.A. Cenozoic deep-sea temperatures and global ice volumes from Mg/Ca in benthic foraminiferal calcite. Science 287 (2000) 269-272
72. In: Lovett J.C., and Wasser S.K. (Eds). Biogeography and Ecology of the Rain Forests of Eastern Africa (1993), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
73. Maley J. The African rain forest: main characteristics of changes in vegetation and climate from the Upper Cretaceous to the Quaternary. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 104B (1996) 31-74
74. Mayaux P., Bartholomé E., Fritz S., and Belward A. A new landcover map of Africa for the year 2000. Journal of Biogeography 31 (2004) 861-877
75. McDougall I., and Feibel C.S. Numerical age control for the Miocene-Pliocene succession at Lothagam, a hominoid-bearing sequence in the northern Kenya Rift. In: Leakey M.G., and Harris J.M. (Eds). Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa (2003), Columbia University Press, New York 43-64
76. Medley K.E., and Hughes F.M. Riverine forests. In: McClanahan T.R., and Young T.P. (Eds). East African Ecosystems and their Conservation (1996), Oxford University Press, Oxford 361-383
77. Menaut J.-C. The vegetation of African savannas. In: Bourlière F. (Ed). Ecosystems of the World: Tropical Savannas (1983), Elsevier, Amsterdam 109-149
78. Miller K.G., Fairbanks R.G., and Mountain G.S. Tertiary oxygen isotope synthesis, sea level history, and continental margin erosion. Paleoceanography 2 (1987) 1-19
79. 4 plants in the Neogene from Pakistan and Kenya. Nature 367 (1994) 162-165
80. Morley R.J., and Richards K. Gramineae cuticle: a key indicator of Late Cenozoic climatic change in the Niger Delta. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology 77 (1993) 119-127
81. Owen-Smith N. Megaherbivores: the Influence of Very Large Size on Ecology (1988), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
82. Partridge T.C., Wood B.A., and deMenocal P.B. The influence of global climatic change and regional uplift on large-mammalian evolution in East and Southern Africa. In: Vrba E.S., Denton G.H., Partridge T.C., and Burckle L.H. (Eds). Paleoclimate and Evolution with Emphasis on Human Origins (1995), Yale University Press, New Haven 330-355
83. Pickford M., Senut B., and Mourer-Chauvire C. Early Pliocene Tragulidae and peafowls in the Rift Valley, Kenya: evidence for rainforest in East Africa. Comptes Rendus Palevol 3 (2004) 179-189
84. Potts R. Variables versus models of early Pleistocene hominid land use. Journal of Human Evolution 27 (1994) 7-24
85. Potts R. Humanity's Descent: the Consequences of Ecological Instability (1996), Avon Books, New York
86. Potts R., and Behrensmeyer A.K. Late Cenozoic terrestrial ecosystems. In: Behrensmeyer A.K., Damuth J.D., DiMichele W.A., Potts R., Sues H.-D., and Wing S.L. (Eds). Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Time: Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals (1992), University of Chicago Press, Chicago 419-541
87. Rasmussen D.T., Bown T.M., and Simons E.L. The Eocene-Oligocene transition in continental Africa. In: Prothero D.R., and Berggren W.A. (Eds). Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution (1992), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 548-566
88. Reed K.E. Using large mammal communities to examine ecological and taxonomic structure and predict vegetation in extant and extinct assemblages. Paleobiology 24 (1998) 384-408
89. Retallack G.J., Dugas D.P., and Bestland E.A. Fossil soils and grasses of a Middle Miocene East African grassland. Science 247 (1990) 1325-1328
90. Salard-Cheboldaeff M. Palynologie Maestrichtienne et Tertiaire du Cameroun: résultats botaniques. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology 32 (1981) 401-439
91. Sanders W.J., Kappelman J., and Rasmussen D.T. New large-bodied mammals from the late Oligocene site of Chilga, Ethiopia. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 49 (2004) 365-392
92. Segalen L., Rognon P., Pickford M., Senut B., Emmanuel L., Renard M., and Ward J. Reconstitution des morphologies dunaires et du régime des paléovents dans le Proto-Namib au cours du Miocène. Bulletin de la Société géologique de France 175 (2004) 537-546
93. Shackleton N.J., Backman J., Zimmerman H., Kent D.V., Hall M.A., Roberts D.G., Schnitker D., Baldauf J., Despraires A., Homrighausen R., Huddlestun P., Keene J., Kaltenback A.J., Krumsiek K.A., Morton A.C., Murray J.W., and Westberg-Smith J. Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice-rafting and history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region. Nature 307 (1984) 620-623
94. Shipman P., and Harris J.M. Habitat preference and paleoecology of Australopithecus boisei in Eastern Africa. In: Grine F.E. (Ed). Evolutionary History of the "Robust" Australopithecines (1988), Aldine de Gruyter, New York 343-381
95. Shipman P., Walker A., Van Couvering J.A., Hooker P.J., and Miller J.A. The Fort Ternan hominoid site, Kenya: geology, age, taphonomy, and paleoecology. Journal of Human Evolution 10 (1981) 49-72
96. Siesser W.G. Aridification of the Namib Desert: evidence from oceanic cores. In: van Zinderen Bakker E.M. (Ed). Antarctic Glacial History and World Palaeoenvironments (1978), Balkema, Rotterdam 105-113
97. Sponheimer M., Reed K.E., and Lee-Thorp J.A. Combining isotopic and ecomorphological data to refine bovid paleodietary reconstruction: a case study from the Makapansgat Limeworks hominin locality. Journal of Human Evolution 36 (1999) 705-718
98. Street F.A. Tropical palaeoenvironments. Progress in Physical Geography 5 (1981) 157-185
99. Swift D.M., Coughenour M.B., and Atsedu M. Arid and semi-arid ecosystems. In: McClanahan T.R., and Young T.P. (Eds). East African Ecosystems and their Conservation (1996), Oxford University Press, Oxford 243-272
100. Traverse A.T. Response of world vegetation to Neogene tectonic and climatic events. Alcheringa 6 (1982) 197-209
101. Traverse A.T. Paleopalynology (1988), Unwin Hyman, Boston
102. Turner A., and Antón M. Evolving Eden: an Illustrated Guide to the Evolution of the African Large Mammals Fauna (2004), Columbia University Press, New York
103. Udeze C.U., and Oboh-Ikuenobe F.E. Neogene palaeoceanographic and palaeoclimatic events inferred from palynological data: Cape Basin off South Africa, ODP Leg 175. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 219 (2005) 199-223
104. van Zinderen Bakker E.M., and Mercer J.H. Major Late Cainozoic climatic events and paleoenvironmental change in Africa viewed in a world wide context. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 56 (1986) 217-235
105. Vrba E.S. Chronological and ecological implications of the fossil Bovidae at the Sterkfontein australopithecine site. Nature 256 (1974) 19-23
106. Vrba E.S. Some evidence of chronology and palaeoecology of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Kromdraai from the fossil Bovidae. Nature 254 (1975) 301-304
107. Vrba E.S. The significance of bovid remains as indicators of environment and predation patterns. In: Behrensmeyer A.K., and Hill A. (Eds). Fossils in the Making: Vertebrate Taphonomy and Paleoecology (1980), University of Chicago Press, Chicago 247-271
108. Vrba E.S. Evolutionary pattern and process in the sister-group Alcelaphini-Aepycerotini (Mammalia: Bovidae). In: Eldredge N., and Stanley S.M. (Eds). Living Fossils (1984), Springer, New York 62-79
109. Vrba E.S. Late Pliocene climatic events and hominid evolution. In: Grine F.E. (Ed). The Evolutionary History of the Robust Australopithecines (1988), Aldine de Gruyter, New York 405-426
110. Wara M.W., Ravelo A.C., and Delaney M.L. Permanent El Nino-like conditions during the Pliocene warm period. Science 309 (2005) 758-761
111. Williamson P.G. Evidence for an early Plio-Pleistocene rainforest expansion in East Africa. Nature 315 (1985) 487-489
112. Wing S.L., and Sues H.-D. Mesozoic and early Cenozoic terrestrial ecosystems. In: Behrensmeyer A.K., Damuth J.D., DiMichele W.A., Potts R., Sues H.-D., and Wing S.L. (Eds). Terrestrial Ecosystems Through Time: Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals (1992), University of Chicago Press, Chicago 327-416
113. Wolfe J.A. Distribution of major vegetational types during the Tertiary. Geophysical Monographs 32 (1985) 357-375
114. Woodruff F., Savin S.M., and Douglas R.G. Miocene stable isotope record: a detailed deep Pacific Ocean study and paleoclimatic implications. Science 212 (1981) 665-668
115. Wynn J.G. Influence of Plio-Pleistocene aridification on human evolution: evidence from paleosols of the Turkana Basin, Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123 (2004) 106-118
116. Zachos J., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., and Billups K. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to Present. Science 292 (2001) 686-693