Biofouling: An historic and contemporary review of its causes, consequences and control in drinking water distribution systems

Biofilms

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 197-227

  Bachmann, R T ^a   Edyvean, R G J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DRINKING WATER; ORGANIC MATTER; SILVER;

ANALYTIC METHOD; BACTERIUM CONTAMINATION; BIOFOULING; CLEANING; COLOR; CORROSION; DISINFECTION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FILTRATION; HISTORY; IONIZATION; NONHUMAN; NUTRIENT; ODOR; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PIPELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEDIMENTATION; TASTE; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER QUALITY; WATER SUPPLY; WATER TREATMENT;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 33646348737     PISSN: 14790505     EISSN: 14790513     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1479050506001979     Document Type: Review

References (219)

1. Ainsworth, R. G., Ridgeway, J. & Gwilliam, R. D. (1979) Corrosion products and deposits in iron mains. Corrosion and Prevention Control 26, 17-22
2. Allen, M. J. (1979) Microbiology of potable waters. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 51, 1747-1751
3. Anon (1994) The Microbiology of Water 1994: Part I-Drinking Water. Report on Public Health and Medical Subjects no. 71. London: HMSO Books
4. APHA (2005) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st edn. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, Inc.
5. Appenzeller, B. M. R., Batté, M., Mathieu, L., Block, J. C., Lahoussine, V., Cavard, J. & Gatel, D. (2001) Effect of adding phosphate to drinking water on bacterial growth in slightly and highly corroded pipes. Water Research 35, 1100-1105
6. Bachmann, R. T. (2004) The role of the biofilm matrix in accumulating potential discolouration materials. Presented at CIWEM Symposium on "What's Lurking in the Pipeline: Biofilms and Sediments", 11 February 2004, Grafham Sailing Club, Grafham Water, UK. Powerpoint file available from the author
7. Bacon, F. (1627) Sylva Sylvarum: or a Naturall Historie. In Ten Centuries. London: Printed by J.Haviland for William Lee
8. Baker, M. N. & Taras, M. J. (1981) The Quest for Pure Water: The History of the Twentieth Century, vols. 1 and 2. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association
9. Bakke, R. & Olsson, P. Q. (1986) Biofilm thickness measurements by light microscopy. Journal of Microbiological Methods 5, 93-98
10. Beech, I. B., Edyvean, R. G. J., Cheung, C. W. S. & Turner, A. (1995) Bacteria and corrosion in potable water mains. In Microbial Corrosion, Proceedings of the 3rd International European Federation of Corrosion Workshop, Portugal 1994, pp. 328-337. Edited by A. K. Tiller and C. A. Sequeira. London: Institute of Materials
11. Benarde, M. A., Israel, B. M., Olivieri, V. P. & Granstrom, M. L. (1965) Efficiency of chlorine dioxide as a bactericide. Applied Microbiology 13, 776-780
12. Blake, N. M. (1956) Water for the Cities: A History of the Urban Water Supply Problem in the United States. New York: Syracuse University Press
13. Block, J.-C., Haudidier, K., Paquin, J. L., Miazga, J. & Levi, Y. (1993) Biofilm accumulation in drinking water distribution systems. Biofouling 6, 333-343
14. Block, J.-C., Dutang, M., Maillard, J. & Reasoner, D. (1994) Growth of attached bacteria in water distribution systems. Water Supply 12, SS1/8-SS1/12
15. Böckelmann, U. (2000) Characterization of the microbial community of lotic organic aggregates ("river snow") in the Elber River of Germany by cultivation and molecular methods. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 33, 157-170
16. Broo, A. E., Berghult, B. & Hedberg, T. (2001) Pipe material selection in drinking water systems - a conference summary. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 1(3), 117-125
17. Butlin, K. R., Adams, M. E. & Thomas, M. (1949) Sulphate-reducing bacteria and internal corrosion of ferrous pipes conveying water. Nature 163, 26-27
18. Calomiris, J. J., Armstrong, J. L. & Seidler, R. J. (1984) Association of metal tolerance with multiple antibiotic resistance of bacteria isolated from drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 47, 1238-1242
19. Campbell, P. G. C. (1995) Interactions between trace metals and aquatic organisms: a critique of the free ion activity model. In Metal Speciation and Bioavailabihty in Aquatic Systems, pp. 45-97. Edited by A. Tessier & D. R. Turner. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd
20. Camper, A. K., McFeters, G. A., Characklis, W. G. & Jones, W. L. (1991) Growth-kinetics of coliform bacteria under conditions relevant to drinking-water to distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57, 2233-2239
21. Camper, A. K., Burr, M., Ellis, B., Butterfield, P. & Abernathy, C. (1999) Development and structure of drinking water biofilms and techniques of their study. Journal of Applied Microbiology Symposium Supplements 85, 1S-12S
22. Carter, J. T., Rice, E. W., Buchberger, S. G. & Lee, Y. (2000) Relationships between levels of heterotrophic bacteria and water quality parameters in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research 34, 1495-1502
23. Cha, J. S. & Cooksey, D. A. (1993) Copper hypersensitivity and uptake in Pseudomonas syringae containing cloned components of the copper resistance operon. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59, 1671-1674
24. Chambers, C. W. & Clarke, N. A. (1966) Control of bacteria in nondomestic water supplies. Advances in Applied Microbiology 8, 105-143
25. Chandy, J. P. & Angles, M. L. (2001) Determination of nutrients limiting biofilm formation and the subsequent impact on disinfectant decay. Water Research 35, 2677-2682
26. Charnock, C. & Kjønnø, O. (2000) Assimilable organic carbon and biodegradable dissolved organic carbon in Norwegian raw and drinking waters. Water Research 34, 1014-1026
27. Chattopadhyay, A. (1968) Susruta recommends golden and jewelled vessels for eating and drinking. Indian Journal of the History of Medicine 13, 4-6
28. Choi, Y.-C. & Morgenroth, E. (2003) Monitoring biofilm detachment under dynamic changes in shear stress using laser-based particle size analysis and mass fractionation. Water Science and Technology 47(5), 69-76
29. Chorus, I. & Bartram, J. (eds.) (1999) Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. Bury St Edmonds, Suffolk: St Edmundsbury Press
30. Colbourne, J. S. (1985) Materials usage and their effects on the microbiological quality of water supplies. Journal of Applied Bacteriology Symposium Supplements 14, 47S-59S
31. Colbourne, J. S. & Brown, D. A. (1979) Dissolved oxygen utilization as an indicator of total microbial activity on non-metallic materials in contact with potable water. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 47, 223-231
32. CRECEP, Kiwa, LHRSP, DVGW/TZW, WRc (2000) Co-Normative Research on Test Methods for Materials in Contact with Drinking Water. Final report on the use of metallic material in drinking water. Stainless Steel Producers Group (SSPG) doc. 21/2000
33. Critchley, M. M., Cromar, N. J., McClure, N. & Fallowfield, H. J. (2001) Biofilms and microbially influenced cuprosolvency in domestic copper plumbing systems. Journal of Applied Microbiology 91, 646-651
34. Crouch, D. P. (1993) Water Management in Ancient Greek Cities. Oxford: Oxford University Press
35. Cullimore, D. R. & McCann, A. E. (1978) The identification, cultivation and control of iron bacteria in ground water. In Aquatic Microbiology, pp. 1-32. Edited by F. A. Skinner & M. J. Shewan. London: Academic Press
36. De Rosa, P. J. & McBride, J. E. (1994) Pipe material selection: a systematic approach. Water Supply 12, SS14/1-SS14/5
37. Delanoue, A., Holt, D. M., Anderson, H. A., McMath, S. M., Smith, S. E., Woodward, C. A. et al. (1997) Analysis of material (biofilm) present on the internal surfaces of a drinking water distribution system. Journal of the Royal Society of Chemistry Special Publication 242, 202-209
38. Deming, H. G. (1975) Water: The Fountain of Opportunity. New York: Oxford University Press
39. Dewettinck, T., Hulsbosch, W., Van Hege, K., Top, E. M. & Verstraete, W. (2001) Molecular fingerprinting of bacterial populations in groundwater and bottled mineral water. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 57, 412-418
40. Dobell, C. (1932) Antony van Leeuwenhoek and his "Little Animals". London, New York: Staples Press Ltd
41. Domek, M. J., LeChevallier, M. W., Cameron, S. C. & McFeters, G. A. (1984) Evidence for the role of copper in the injury process of coliform bacteria in drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 48, 289-293
42. Don, J. & Chisholm, J. (1911) Modern Methods of Water Purification. London: Edward Arnold.
43. Donlan, R. M., Pipes, W. O. & Yohe, T. L. (1994) Biofilm formation on cast iron substrata in water distribution systems. Water Research 28, 1497-1503
44. du Moulin, G. C., Coleman, E. C. Jr & Hedley-Whyte, J. (1987) Bacterial colonization and endotoxin content of a new renal dialysis water system composed of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 53, 1322-1326
45. Dukan, S., Levi, Y., Piriou, P., Guyon, F. & Villon, P. (1996) Dynamic modelling of bacterial growth in drinking water networks. Water Research 30, 1991-2002
46. EC (1998) Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption
47. EEC (1980) Council Directive 80/778/EEC of 15 July 1980 relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption
48. Embrey, M. A., Parkin, R. T. & Balbus, J. M. (2002) Handbook of CCL Microbes in Drinking Water. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association
49. Ernde, K. M. E., Smith, D. W. & Facey, R. (1992) Initial investigation of microbially influenced corrosion (MIC) in a low temperature water distribution system. Water Research 26, 169-175
50. Feugeas, F., Ehret, G. & Cornet, A. (1997) Biofilms analysis of different steels immersed in ground water. In Aspects of Microbially Induced Corrosion, The Institute of Materials, Publ. No. 22, pp. 77-86
51. Flemming, H.-C. (1997) Reverse osmosis membrane biofouling. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 14, 382-391
52. Forbes, R. J. (1955) Water supply. In Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. I, pp. 149-194. Edited by R. J. Forbes. Leiden: Brill
53. Fortin, C. & Campbell, P. G. C. (2000) Silver uptake by the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in relation to chemical speciation: influence of chloride. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19, 2769-2778
54. Franco, F. F. S., Spratt, D., Leao, J. C. & Porter, S. R. (2005) Biofilm formation and control in dental unit waterlines. Biofilms 2, 9-17
55. Frias, J., Ribas, F. & Lucena, F. (1994) Critical study of the use of Pseudomonas fluorescens P17 to determine assimilable organic carbon (AOC). Water Research 28, 1463-1469
56. Frias, J., Ribas, F. & Lucena, F. (2001) Effects of different nutrients on bacterial growth in a pilot distribution system. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 80, 129-139
57. Frontinus (100 AD) De aquaeductu urbis romae.
58. Translated by Rodgers, R. H. (2003) The Aqueducts of Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available online at: 〈http://www.uvm.edu/~rrodgers/Frontinus.html#fn4〉
59. Gauthier, V., Gérard, B., Portal, J.-M., Block, J.-C. & Gatel, D. (1999) Organic matter as loose deposits in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research 33, 1014-1026
60. Gauthier, V., Barbeau, B., Millette, R., Block, J.-C. & Prévost, M. (2001) Suspended particles in the drinking water of two distribution systems. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 1(4), 237-245
61. Geldreich, E. E. (1974) Microbiology of water. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 46, 1355-1372
62. Gibbs, R. A., Scutt, J. E. & Croll, B. T. (1990) Microbiological and trihalomethane responses to booster chlorination. Journal of the Institution of Water and Environmental Management 4, 131-139
63. Griffith, E. (1987) The iron-uptake systems of pathogenic bacteria. In Iron and Infection: Molecular, Physiological and Clinical Aspects, 1st edn, pp. 69-137. Edited by J. J. Bullen & E. Griffiths. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons
64. Hallam, N. B., West, J. R., Forster, C. F. & Simms, J. (2001) The potential for biofilm growth in water distribution systems. Water Research 35, 4063-4071
65. Harned, W. (1986) Bacteria as a particle source in water processing equipment. Journal of Environmental Science 29, 32-34
66. Hassler, C. S., Slaveykova, V. I. & Wilkinson, K. J. (2004) Some fundamental (and often overlooked) considerations underlying the free ion activity and biotic ligand models. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23, 283-291
67. Hastings, A. B. (1948) Biology of Water Supply, 2nd edn. British Museum (Natural History) Economic Series no. 7A
68. Heil, A. & Szewzyk, U. (2001) Aquabacteria, the dominant drinking water biofilm bacteria, and their relation to copper. In Proceedings of EFC -Event No. 255 on Biofouling of Materials, Frankfurt am Main, 10-13 June 2001, pp. 103-104
69. Heitz, A., Kagi, R. I. & Alexander, R. (2000) Polysulfide sulfur in pipewall biofilms: its role in the formation of swampy odour in distribution systems. Water Science and Technology 41 (4-5), 271-278
70. Hiisvirta, L., Kruithof, J.C. & van Puffelen, J. (1994) Disinfection and disinfection by-products. Water Supply 12, IR6/1-IR6/48
71. Holden, B., Greetham, M., Croll, B. T. & Scutt, J. (1995) The effect of changing inter processes and final disinfection reagents on corrosion and biofilm growth in distribution pipes. Water Science and Technology 32(8), 213-220
72. Huck, P. M. (1990) Measurement of biodegradable organic matter and bacterial growth potential in drinking water. Journal of the American Water Works Association 83, 78-86
73. Huebner, I., Stuhlfauth-Roisch, U., Schlerkmann, H., Lindner, K. & Karrenbrock, F. (2001) Microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC) of stainless steel in drinking water plumbing systems. In Proceedings of the IWA 2nd World Water Congress, Berlin, 15-19 October 2001, p. 125
74. Hughes, M. N. & Poole, R. K. (1989) Metals and Microorganisms. London: Chapman & Hall
75. Ingraham, J. L., Maaløe, O. & Neidhardt, F. C. (1983) Growth of the Bacterial Cell. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Ass., Inc.
76. Jacangelo, J. G., Olivieri, V. P. & Kawata, K. (1987) Mechanism of Inactivation of Microorganism by Combined Chlorine. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association Research Foundation
77. Jain, D. K. (1995) Microbial colonization of the surface of stainless steel coupons in a deionized water system. Water Research 29, 1869-1876
78. Jennings, J. D. & Norbeck, E. (eds.) (1964) Prehistoric Man in the New World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
79. Jones, C. R., Chamberlain, A. H. L. & Adams, M. R. (1999) An investigation of the presence of ultramicrocells in natural mineral water. Letters in Applied Microbiology 28, 275-279
80. Juhna, T. (2002) Effect of phosphorus removal from humus-rich drinking water on biofilm formation; In Proceedings of the International Specialised Biofilm Monitoring Conference, 17-20 March 2002, Porto, pp. 245-248
81. Kalmbach, S., Manz, W. & Szewzyk, U. (1997) Dynamics of biofilm formation in drinking water: phylogenetic affiliation and metabolic potential of single cells assessed by formazan reduction and in situ hybridisation. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 22, 265-279
82. Keevil, C. W., Walker, J. T., McEvoy, J. & Coulbourne, J. S. (1989) Detection of biofilms associated with pitting corrosion of copper pipework in Scottish hospitals. In Biocorrosion, pp. 99-105. Edited by L. C. Gaylardem & L. H. E. Morton. Kew, Kent: Biodeterioration Society
83. Kerr, A., Osborn, K. S., Roboson, G. D. & Handley, P. S. (1998) The relationship between pipe material and biofilm formation in a laboratory model system. Journal of Applied Microbiology 85, 29S-38S
84. Kim, I. S., Kim, S. E. & Hwang, J. S. (1997) Nutritional flexibility of oligotrophic and copiotrophic bacteria isolated from deionized-ultrapure water made by high-purity water manufacturing system in a semiconductor manufacturing company. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 7, 200-203
85. Kim, B. R., Anderson, J. E., Mueller, S. A., Gaines, W. A. & Kendall, A. M. (2002) Literature review - efficacy of various disinfectants against Legionella in water systems. Water Research 36, 4433-4444
86. Kobrin, G., Lamb, S., Tuthill, A. H., Avery, R. E. & Selby, K. A. (1997) Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of Stainless Steels by Water Used for Cooling and Hydrostatic Testing. Nickel Development Institute Technical Series no. 10 085, Canada
87. Kraepelin, K. (1886) Die Fauna der Hamburger Wasserleitung. Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften, Herausgegeben von dem Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein in Hamburg 9, 1-15
88. Kronig, B. & Paul, T. (1897) Die chemischen Grundlagen der Lehre von der Giftwirkung und Desinfection. Zeitschrift für Hygiene 25, 112-121
89. Krüger, B. (1889) Die physikalische Einwirkung von Sinkstoffen auf die im Wasser befindlichen Mikroorganismen. Zeitschrift für Hygiene 7, 86-114
90. Kugaprasatham, S., Nagaoka, H. & Ohgaki, S. (1992) Effect of turbulence on nitrifying biofilms at non-limiting substrate conditions. Water Research 26, 1629-1638
91. Kusnetsov, J., Iivanainen, E., Elomaa, N., Zacheus, O. & Martikainen, P. J. (2001) Copper and silver ions more effective against Legionellae than against mycobacteria in a hospital warm water system. Water Research 35, 4217-4225
92. LeChevallier, M. W., Seidler, R. J. & Evans, T. M. (1980) Enumeration and characterization of standard plate count bacteria in chlorinated and raw water supplies. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40, 922-930
93. LeChevallier, M. W., Babcock, T. M. & Lee, R. G. (1987) Examination and characterisation of distribution system biofilms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 53, 2714-2724
94. LeChevallier, M. W., Lowry, C. D. & Lee, R. G. (1990) Disinfecting biofilms in a model distribution system. Journal of the American Water Works Association 82, 87-99
95. LeChevallier, M. W., Becker, W. C., Schorr, P. & Lee, R. G. (1992) Evaluating the performance of biologically-active rapid filters. Journal of the American Water Works Association 84, 136-146.
96. LeChevallier, M. W., Lowry, C. D., Lee, R. G. & Gibbon, D. L. (1993) Examining the relationship between iron corrosion and the disinfection of biofilm bacteria. Journal of the American Water Works Association 85, 111-123
97. Lee, D.-G. & Kim, S.-J. (2003) Bacterial species in biofilm cultivated from the end of the Seoul water distribution system. Journal of Applied Microbiology 95, 317-324
98. Lee, S. H., O'Connor, J. T. & Banerji, S. (1980) Biologically mediated corrosion and its effects on water quality in distribution systems. Journal of the American Water Works Association 34, 203-221
99. Lehtola, M. J., Miettinen, I. T., Vartiainen, T. & Martikainen, P. J. (1999) A new sensitive bioassay for determination of microbially available phosphorus in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, 2032-2034
100. Lehtola, M. J., Miettinen, I. T., Vartiainen, T., Myllykangas, T. & Martikainen, P. J. (2001) Microbially available organic carbon, phosphorus, and microbial growth in ozonated drinking water. Water Research 35, 1635-1640
101. Lehtola, M. J., Miettinen, I. T., Keinänen, M. M., Kekki, T. K., Laine, O., Hirvonen, A. et al. (2004) Microbiology, chemistry and biofilm development in a pilot drinking water distribution system with copper and plastic pipes. Water Research 38, 3769-3779
102. Lerner, D. N. (2002) Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review. Hydrogeology Journal 10, 143-152
103. Lewandowski, Z. & Walser, G. (1991) Influence of hydrodynamics on biofilm accumulation. In Proceedings of Environmental Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reno, Nevada, pp. 619-624
104. L'Hopitault, J. C. & Pommery, J. (1982) The complexing properties of various fractions of humic substances with pesticides and heavy metals. Revue des Sciences de l'Eau 1, 85-92
105. Li, E. S. Y. & Liu, W.-T. (2003) DNA microarray technology in microbial ecology studies - principle, applications and current limitations. Microbes and Environment 18, 175-187
106. Lim, K.-H. & Shin, H.-S. (1997) Operating characteristics of aerated submerged biofilm reactors for drinking water treatment. Water Science and Technology 36(12), 101-109
107. Lin, C. Z. & Olson, B. H. (1995) Occurrence of cop-like copper resistance genes among bacteria isolated from a water distribution system. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 41, 642-646
108. Linnik, P. N. (2003) Complexation as the most important factor in the fate and transport of heavy metals in the Dnieper water bodies. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 376, 342-348
109. Magnusson, R. J. (2001) Water Technology in the Middle Ages. Baltimore, London: The Johns Hopkins University Press
110. Marshall, K. C. (1976) Interfaces in Microbial Ecology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
111. Marshall, K. C. (1985) Bacterial adhesion in oligotrophic habitats. Microbiological Sciences 2, 321-325
112. Marshall, K. C. & Blainey, B. L. (1991) Role of bacterial adhesion in biofilm formation and biocorrosion. In Biofouling and Biocorrosion in Industrial Water Systems, pp. 29-46. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Industrial Biofouling and Biocorrosion, Stuttgart, 13-14 September 1990. Edited by H.-C. Flemming & G. G. Geesey. Berlin: Springer-Verlag
113. McFeters, G. A. (1990) Enumeration, occurrence, and significance of injured indicator bacteria in drinking water. In Drinking Water Microbiology: Progress and Recent Developments, pp. 478-492. Edited by G. A. McFeters. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
114. McFeters, G. A., Broadaway, S. C., Pyle, B. H. & Egozy, Y. (1993) Distribution of bacteria within operating laboratory water purification systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59, 1410-1415
115. McMath, S. M., Chamberlain, A. H. L., Lloyd, B. J. & Holt, D. M. (1997) The natural history of biofilms in a model water distribution system. In Biofilms: Community Interactions and Control, pp. 193-202. Edited by J. Wimpenny, P. Handley, P. Gilbert, H. Lappin-Scott & M. Jones. Cardiff: BioLine
116. McMath, S. M., Delanoue, A., Holt, D. M., Maier, S. & Woodward, C. A. (1999a) Importance of "clumps" shed from biofilms in a water distribution system. Journal of the Royal Society of Chemistry Special Publication 242, 72-79
117. McMath, S. M., Sumpter, C., Holt, D. M., Delanoue, A. & Chamberlain, A. H .L. (1999b) The fate of environmental coliforms in a model water distribution system. Letters in Applied Microbiology 28, 93-97
118. Miettinen, I., Vartiainen, T. & Martikainen, P. J. (1997a) Phosphorus and bacterial growth in drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 63, 3242-3245
119. Miettinen, I., Vartiainen, T. & Martikainen, P. J. (1997b) Microbial growth and assimilable organic carbon in Finnish drinking waters. Water Science and Technology 35(11-12), 301-306
120. Miettinen, I., Vartiainen, T. & Martikainen, P. J. (1999) Determination of assimilable organic carbon in humus-rich drinking waters. Water Research 33, 2277-2282
121. Momba, M. N. B., Cloete, T. E., Venter, S. N. & Kfir, R. (1999) Examination of the behaviour of Escherichia coli in biofilms established in laboratory-scale units receiving chlorinated and chloraminated water. Water Research 33, 2937-2940
122. Momba, M., Kfir, R., Venter, S. N. & Cloete, T. E. (2000) An overview of biofilm formation in distribution systems and its impact on the deterioration of water quality. Water SA 26, 59-66
123. Morel, F. M. M. (1983) Principles of Aquatic Chemistry. New York: Wiley-Interscience
124. Morris, J. C. (1982) Health Perspective in the Oxidative Treatment of Water for Potable Supply. Part 2: Health Assessment of Current Oxidant-Disinfectants. Leidschendam: National Institute for Water Supply
125. Namkung, E. & Rittman, B. E. (1987) Removal of taste and odor causing compounds by biofilms grown on humic substances. Journal of the American Water Works Association 79, 107-112
126. Needham, J. & Ling, W. (1965) Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 4, part II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
127. Niquette, P., Servais, P. & Savoir, R. (2000) Impacts of pipe materials on densities of fixed bacterial biomass in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research 34, 1952-1956
128. Norton, C. D. & LeChevallier, M. W. (2000) A pilot study of bacteriological population changes through potable water treatment and distribution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, 268-276
129. Ollos, P. J., Slawson, R. M. & Huck, P. M. (1998) Bench scale investigations of bacterial regrowth in drinking water distribution systems. Water Science and Technology 38(8-9), 275-282
130. Olsen, E. & Szybalski, W. (1950) Aerobic microbiological corrosion of water pipes. Corrosion 6, 405-414
131. Olson, B. H. & Nagy, L. A. (1984) Microbiology of potable water. Advances in Applied Microbiology 30, 73-132
132. Olson, B. H., McCleary, R. & Meeker, J. (1991) Background and models lor bacterial biofilm formation and function in water distribution systems. In Modeling the Environmental Fate of Microorganisms, pp. 255-285. Edited by C. J. Hurst. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology
133. Pagenkopf, G. (1983) Gill surface interaction model for trace-metal toxicity to fishes: role of complexation, pH, and water hardness. Environmental Science and Technology 17, 342-347
134. Pankhurst, C. L., Johnson, N. W. & Woods, R .G. (1998) Microbial contamination of dental unit waterlines: the scientific argument. International Dental Journal 48, 359-368
135. Pedersen, K. (1990) Biofilm development on stainless steel and PVC surfaces in drinking water. Water Research 24, 239-243
136. Percival, S. (1999) Biofilm reduction by choice of material, filtration, surface roughness, and molybdenum ions. In Biofilms: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly, pp. 155-170. BiofilmClub meeting at Gregynog/UK, 18-20 September 1999. Edited by J. Wimpenny, P. Gilbert, J. Walker, M. Brading & R. Bayston. Cardiff: BioLine
137. Percival, S., Beech, I. B., Knapp, G., Edyvean, R. G. J. & Wales, D. S. (1997) Biofilm development on stainless steel 304 and 316 in a potable water system. Journal of the Institution of Water and Environmental Management 11, 289-294
138. Percival, S., Knapp, J. S., Edyvean, R. G. J. & Wales, D. S. (1998) Biofilms, mains water and stainless steel. Water Research 32, 2187-2201
139. Picioreanu, C. (1999) Multidimensional modelling of biofilm structure. Ph.D. thesis, Delft University of Technology
140. Pipes, P. O. (1990) Microbiological methods and monitoring of drinking water. In Drinking Water Microbiology: Progress and Recent Developments, pp. 428-451. Edited by G. A. McFeters. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
141. Piriou, P., Dukan, S., Levi, Y. & Jarrige, P. A. (1997) Prevention of bacterial growth in drinking water distribution systems. Water Science and Technology 35(11-12), 283-287
142. Pirt, S. J. (1975) Principles of Microbe and Cell Cultivation. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications
143. Podschun, R. & Ullmann, U. (1998) Klebsiella spp. as nosocomial pathogens: epidemiology, taxonomy, typing methods, and pathogenicity factors. Clinical Microbiology Review 11, 589-603
144. Pontoriero, G., Pozzoni, P., Andrulli, S. & Locatelli, F. (2003) The quality of dialysis water. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 18, 21-25
145. Prescott, S. C. & Winslow, C. E. A. (1904) Elements of Water Bacteriology. New York: J. Wiley & Sons
146. Pryor, M., Springthorpe, S., Riffard, S., Brooks, T., Huo, Y., Davis, G. & Sattar, S. A. (2004) Investigation of opportunistic pathogens in municipal drinking water under different supply and treatment regimes. Water Science and Technology 50(1), 83-90
147. Rathsack, U. (1997) Massenentwicklung von Eisenorganismen in Wasserversorgungssystemen. Neue DELIWA Zeitschrift 5/97, 195-198
148. Reasoner, D. J. (1983) Microbiology of potable water and groundwater. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 55, 891-895
149. Reeves, M. W., Pine, L., Hutner, S. H., George, J. R. & Harrell, W. K. (1981) Metal requirements of Legionella pneumophila. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 13, 688-695
150. Reeves, M. W., Pine, L., Neilands, J. B. & Balows, A. (1983) Absence of siderophore activity in Legionella species grown in iron-deficient media. Journal of Bacteriology 154, 324-329
151. Ridgway, H. F. & Olson, B. H. (1982) Chlorine resistance patterns of bacteria from two drinking water distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 44, 972-987
152. Riedewald, F. (1997) Biofilms in pharmaceutical waters. Pharmaceutical Engineering 17, 1-7
153. Rogers, J., Dowsett, A. B., Dennis, P. J., Lee, J. V. & Keevil, C. W. (1994a) Influence of temperature and plumbing material selection on biofilm formation and growth of Legionella pneumophila in a model potable water system containing complex microbial flora. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60, 1585-1892
154. Rogers, J., Dowsett, A. B., Dennis, P. J., Lee, J. V. & Keevil, C. W. (1994b) Influence of plumbing materials on biofilm formation and growth of Legionella pneumophila in potable water systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60, 1842-1851
155. Rohlich, G. A. & Sarles, W. B. (1967) Chemical composition of algae and its relationship to taste and odor. In Biology of Water Pollution, pp. 232-235. Edited by W. M. Ingram & K. M. Mackenthun. Washington, DC: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
156. Roman, M. C. & Minton-Summers, S. (1998) Assessment of biofilm formation in the international space station water recovery and management system. Life Support and Biosphere Science 5, 45-51
157. Sartory, D. P. & Holmes, P. (1997) Chlorine sensitivity of environmental, distribution system and biofilm coliforms. Water Science and Technology 35(11-12), 289-292
158. Sathasivan, A. & Ohgaki, S. (1999) Application of new bacterial regrowth potential method for water distribution system - a clear evidence of phosphorus limitation. Water Research 33, 137-144
159. Schmeisser, C., Stockigt, C., Raasch, C., Wingender, J., Timmis, K. N., Wenderoth, D. F. et al. (2003) Metagenome survey of biofilms in drinking-water networks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, 7298-7309
160. Schoenen, D. & Schöler, H. F. (1983) Trinkwasser und Werkstoffe: Praxisbeobachtungen und Untersuchungsverfahren. DVGW-Schriftenreihe Wasser no. 37. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag
161. Schwartz, T., Hoffmann, S. & Obst, U. (1998) Formation and bacterial composition of young, natural biofilms obtained from public bank-filtered drinking water systems. Water Research 32, 2787-2797
162. Schwartz, T., Hoffmann, S. & Obst, U. (2003) Formation of natural biofilms during chlorine dioxide and U.V. disinfection in a public drinking water distribution system. Journal of Applied Microbiology 95, 591-601
163. Servais, P., Billen, G. & Hascoët, M.-C. (1987) Determination of the biodegradable traction of dissolved organic matter in waters. Water Research 21, 445-450
164. Servais, P., Anzil, A. & Ventresque, C. (1989) Simple method for determination of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55, 2732-2734
165. Servais, P., Billen, G., Laurent, P., Levi, Y. & Randon, G. (1993) Impact of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) on bacterial dynamics in distribution systems. In Proceedings of AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Miami, pp. 963-980
166. Sharp, R. R., Camper, A. K., Crippen, J. J., Schneider, O. D. & Leggiero, S. (2001) Evaluation of drinking water biostability using biofilm methods. Journal of Environmental Engineering 127, 403-410
167. Shirey, J. J. & Bissonnette, G. K. (1991) Detection and identification of groundwater bacteria capable of escaping entrapment on 0.45-micron-pore-size membrane filters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57, 2251-2254
168. Sibille, I., Sime-Ngando, T., Mathieu, L. & Block, J. C. (1998) Protozoan bacterivory and Escherichia coli survival in drinking water distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64, 197-202
169. Siegrist, H. & Gujer, W. (1985) Mass transfer mechanisms in a heterotrophic biofilm. Water Research 19, 1369-1378
170. Skraber, S., Schijven, J., Gantzer, C. & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2005) Pathogenic viruses in drinking-water biofilms: a public health risk? Biofilms 2, 105-117
171. Slaveykova, V. & Wilkinson, K. J. (2002) Physicochemical aspects of lead bioaccumulation by Chlorella vulgaris. Environmental Science and Technology 36, 969-975
172. Slaveykova, V., Wilkinson, K. J., Ceresa, A. & Pretsch, E. (2003) Role of fulvic acid on lead bioaccumulation by Chlorella kesslerii. Environmental Science and Technology 37, 1114-1121
173. Sly, L. I., Hodgkinson, M. C. & Arunpairojana, V. (1990) Deposition of manganese in a drinking water distribution system. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56, 628-639
174. Snoeyink, V. L. & Wagner, I. (1996) Principles of corrosion of water distribution systems. In Internal Corrosion of Water Distribution Systems, 2nd edn, pp. 1-27. Edited by M. K. Kozyra. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association
175. Snow, J. (1856) Cholera and the water supply in the south districts of London in 1854. Journal of Public Health and Sanitary Review 2, 239-257
176. States, S. J., Conley, L. F., Ceraso, M., Stephenson, T. E., Wolford, R.
177. Stoodley, P., Lewandowski, Z., Boyle, J. D. & Lappin-Scott, H. M. (1998) Oscillation characteristics of biofilm streamers in turbulent flowing water as related to drag and pressure drop. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 57, 536-544
178. Stout, J. E., Yu, V. L. & Best, M. G. (1985) Ecology of Legionella pneumophila within water distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49, 221-228
179. Szewzyk, U., Szewzyk, R., Manz, W. & Schleifer, K.-H. (2000) Microbiological safety of drinking water. Annual Review of Microbiology 54, 81-127
180. Thurman, R. & Gerba, C. (1989) The molecular mechanisms of copper and silver ion disinfection of bacteria and viruses. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 18, 295-315
181. Tijhuis, L., Hijman, B., Van Loosdrecht, M. C. M. & Heijnen, J. J. (1996) Influence of detachment, substrate loading and reactor scale on the formation of biofilms in airlift reactors. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 45, 7-17
182. Tilton, R. C. & Rosenberg, B. (1978) Reversal of the silver inhibition of microorganisms by agar. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 35, 1116-1120
183. Timms, S., Colquhoun, K. O., Slade, J. & Fricker, C. R. (1995) Domestic plumbing materials and their effect on viruses. Water Science and Technology, Special Issue 32(1), I-III
184. Ultee, A., Souvatzi, N., Maniadi, K. & König, H. (2004) Identification of the culturable and nonculturable bacterial population in ground water of a municipal water supply in Germany. Journal of Applied Microbiology 96, 560-568
185. U.S. EPA (1989) Drinking water; National primary drinking water regulations; total coliforms (including faecal coliforms and E. coli); final rule. Fed. Reg. 54, 27544-27568, June 29. In Control of Biofilm Growth in Drinking Water Systems. U.S. EPA Seminar Publication, Washington, DC, p. 28
186. U.S. EPA (1992) Control of Biofilm Growth in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. US EPA Seminar Publication, Washington, DC, EPA/625/R-92/001
187. U.S. EPA (2003) National primary drinking water standards. Office of Water (4606M), EPA 816-F-03-016. Website: 〈http://www.epa.gov/satewater/mcl.html#mcls〉 (accessed on 23 October 2005)
188. Vahala, R., Niemi, R. M., Kiuru, H. & Laukkanen, R. (1998) The effect of GAC filtration on bacterial regrowth and nitrification in a simulated water main. Journal of Applied Microbiology 85, 178S-185S
189. Vallee, B. L. (1994) Alcohol in human history. EXS 71, 1-8
190. Vallee, B. L. (1998) Alcohol in the Western world. Scientific American 278, 80-85
191. Van der Kooij, D. (1992) Assimilable organic carbon as an indicator of bacterial regrowth. Journal of the American Water Works Association 84, 57-65
192. Van der Kooij, D. & Veenendaal, H. R. (1993) Assessment of the biofilm formation potential of synthetic materials in contact with drinking water during distribution. In Proceedings of the AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Miami, pp. 1395-1407
193. Van der Kooij, D. & Veenendaal, H. R. (1994) Biofilm development on surfaces in drinking water distribution systems. Water Supply 12, SS1/1-SS1/7
194. Van der Kooij, D. & Veenendaal, H. R. (2001) Biomass production potential of materials in contact with drinking water: method and practical importance. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 1(3), 39-45
195. Van der Kooij, D., Visser, A. & Hijnen, W. A. M. (1982) Determining the concentration of easily assimilable organic carbon in drinking water. Journal of the American Water Works Association 74, 540-545
196. Van der Kooij, D., Hijnen, W. A. M. & Kruithof, J. C. (1989) The effects of ozonation, biological filtration and distribution on the concentration of easily assimilable organic carbon (AOC) in drinking water. Ozone: Science and Engineering 11, 297-311
197. Van der Kooij, D., Veenendaal, H. R., Baars-Lorist, C., Van der Klift, D. W. & Drost, Y. C. (1995a) Biofilm formation on surfaces of glass and teflon exposed to treated water. Water Research 29, 1655-1662
198. Van der Kooij, D., Vrouwenvelder, J. S., Veenendal, H. R. & van Raalte-Drewes, M. J. C. (1995b) Multiplication of aeromonads in groundwater supplies in relation with the biofilm formation characteristics in drinking water. In Proceedings of the AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, San Francisco, pp. 1349-1363
199. Van der Kooij, D., van Lieverloo, J. H. M., Schellart, J. A. & Hiemstra, P. (1999) Distribution drinking water without disinfectant: highest achievement or height of folly?. Journal of Water Services Research and Technology - Aqua 48, 31-37
200. Van der Kooij, D., Vrouwenvelder, J. S. & Veenendaal, H. R. (2002) Elucidation and control of biofilm formation processes in water treatment and distribution using the unified biofilm approach. In Proceedings of the International Specialised Biofilm Monitoring Conference, 17-20 March 2002, Porto, pp. 18-22
201. Van Leeuwen, H. P. (1999) Metal speciation dynamics and bioavailability: inert and labile complexes. Environmental Science and Technology 33, 3743-3748
202. Videla, H. A. & Characklis, W. A. (1992) Biofouling and microbially influenced corrosion. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 29, 195-212
203. Vitruvius (100 BC) De Architectura. Translated by M. H. Morgan (1914) The Ten Book on Architecture. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press. Available online at 〈http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Vitr.+1.preface+1〉
204. Volk, C. & LeChevallier, M. W. (1999) Impacts of the reduction of nutrient levels on bacterial water quality in distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, 4957-4966
205. Wadowsky, R. M., Wolford, R., McNamara, M. & Yee, R. B. (1985) Effect of temperature, pH, and oxygen level on the multiplication of naturally occurring Legionella pneumophila in potable water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49, 1197-1205
206. Wagner, D. & Chamberlain, A. H. L. (1997) Microbiologically influenced copper corrosion in potable water with emphasis on practical relevance. Biodegradation 8, 177-187
207. Wagner, D., Fischer, W. R., Paradies, H. H. & von Fratique, O. (1996) Microbiologically influenced corrosion in copper potable water installations. In Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of Materials, pp. 259-269. Edited by E. Heitz, H.-C. Flemming & W. Sand. Berlin: Springer-Verlag
208. 2) for the control of biofilms. Water Science and Technology 35(11-12), 319-323
209. Walker, J. T., Ives, S., Morales, M., Pavey, N. L. & West, A. A. (1997a) Biofouling and pathogen control in hot and cold water systems. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 39, 88-89
210. Walker, J. T., West, A. A., Morales, M., Ives, S. & Pavey, N. (1997b) Controlling Legionella and biofouling using silver and copper ions: fact or fiction?. In Biofilms: Community Interactions and Control, pp. 279-286. Edited by J. Wimpenny, P. Handley, P. Gilbert, H. Lappin-Scott & M. Jones. Cardiff: BioLine
211. Walker, J. T., Bradshaw, D. J., Fulford, M. R., Martin, M. V. & Marsh, P. D. (2001) Controlling mixed species biofilm contamination in dental unit water systems (DUWS) using a laboratory simulation model - a choice of products?. In Chance or Necessity? pp. 333-340. Edited by P. Gilbert, D. Allison, M. Brading, J. Verran & J. Walker. Cardiff: BioLine
212. Waller, J. (2003) The Discovery of the Germ. New York: Columbia University Press
213. Wang, X. P., Xu, X. M., Patni, N., Tipa, T. & Principe, M. (1999) Biofilm formation and distribution of heterotrophic bacteria in a model pipe loop system. In Proceedings of the IAWQ Conference on Biofilm Systems, 17-20 October 1999, New York, pp. 1-13
214. Whipple, G. C. (1897) Some observations on the growth of organisms in water pipes. Journal of the New England Water Works Association 12, 1-19
215. Whipple, G. C., Fair, G. M. & Whipple, M. C. (1927) The Microscopy of Drinking Water. New York: John Wiley & Sons
216. WHO (World Health Organization) (2004a) Water for health. Available online at 〈http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_ health/dwq/waterforhealth3/en/index.html〉 (accessed on 13 October 2005)
217. WHO (World Health Organization) (2004b) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Recommendations, 3rd edn, vol. 1. Geneva: WHO
218. Zacheus, O. M., Iivanainen, E. K., Nissinen, T. K., Lehtola, M. J. & Martikainen, P. J. (2000) Bacterial biofilm formation on polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene and stainless steel exposed to ozonated water. Water Research 34, 63-70
219. Zacheus, O. M., Lehtola, M. J., Korhonen, L. K. & Martikainen, P. J. (2001) Soft deposits, the key site for microbial growth in drinking water distribution networks. Water Research 35, 1757-1765