Cardiovascular benefits and potential hazards of physical exercise in elderly people

Journal of Sports Science and Medicine

Volumn 4, Issue SUPPL. 7, 2005, Pages

  Kallinen, Mauri ^a,b,c,d,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ   (Finland)

^b LIKES RESEARCH CENTER FOR SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCES   (Finland)

^c Central Finland Central Hospital   (Finland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND   (Finland)

^e Central Finland Health Care District   (Finland)

Author keywords

Arrhythmia; Benefits and hazards of exercise; Cardiovascular fitness; Exercise testing; Older people; Predictive value; ST segment depressions

Indexed keywords

EID: 33645867991     PISSN: 13032968     EISSN: 13032968     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. Abbas, A.K., Lichtman, A.H. and Pober, J.S. (1995) Cellular and molecular Immunology. 2nd edition. Saunders, Toronto, ON.
2. Ades, P.A., Waldman, M.L., Meyer, W.L., Brown, K.A., Poehlman, E.T., Pendlebury, W.W., Leslie, K.O., Gray, P.R., Lew, R.R. and LeWinter, M.M. (1996) Skeletal muscle and cardiovascular adaptations to exercise conditioning in older coronary patients. Circulation 94, 323-330.
3. Alnageeb, M.A., Al Said, N.S. and Goldspink, G. (1984) Connectice tissue changes and physical properties of developing and ageing skeletal muscle. Journal of Anatomy 139, 677-89.
4. American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (1986) Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.
5. American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (1995) Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
6. American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand (1998) Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 30, 992-1008.
7. American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (2000). ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 6th edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
8. Andersen, J.L., Terzis, G. and Kryger, A. (1999) Increase in the degree of co-expression of myosin heavy chain isoforms in skeletal muscle fibres of the very old. Muscle Nerve 22, 449-454.
9. Aniansson, A., Grimby, G., Hedberg, M. and Krotkiewski, M. (1981) Muscle morphology, enzyme activity and muscle strength in elderly men and women. Clinical Physiology 1, 73-86.
10. Aromaa, A. and Koskinen, S. (2002) Health and functional capacity in Finland. Baseline results of the Health 2000 Examination Survey. Publication of the National Public Health Institute B3/2002, Helsinki.
11. Balady, G.J. (2002) Survival of the fittest- more evidence. The New England Journal of Medicine 346, 852-853.
12. Baker, B.L., Wu, W.C., Winter, C.J., Dinh, H., Wyeth, R., Sallman, A.L. and Vesely, D.L. (1991) Exercise increases the circulating concentration of the N-terminus of the atrial natriuretic factor prohormone in normal individuals. American Heart Journal 12, 1395-1402.
13. Beere, P.A., Russell, S.D., Morey, M.C., Kitzman, D.W. and Higginbotham, M.B. (1999) Aerobic exercise training can reverse age-related peripheral circulatory changes in healthy older men. Circulation 100, 1085-1094.
14. Belman, M.J. and Gaesser, G. (1991) Exercise training below and above the lactate threshold. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23, 65-75.
15. Benestad, A.M. (1965) Trainability of old men. Acta Medica Scandinavica 178, 321-327.
16. Bijnen, F.C., Feskens, E.J., Caspersen, C.J., Nagelkerke, N., Mosterd, W.L. and Kromhout, D. (1999) Baseline and previous physical activity in relation to mortality in elderly men, the Zutphen Elderly Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 150, 1289-1296.
17. Binder, E.F., Schechtman, K.B., Ehsani, A.A., Steger-May, K., Brown, M., Sinacore, D.R., Yarasheski, K.E. and Holloszy, J.O. (2002) Effects of exercise training on frailty in community-dwelling older adults: results of randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 50, 2089-2091.
18. Blair, S.N., Kohl, H.W. III, Barlow, C.E., Paffenbarger, R.S. Jr, Gibbons, L.W. and Macera, C.A. (1995) Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality: a prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men. The Journal of the American Medical Association 273, 1093-1098.
19. Borg, G. (1970) Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 2, 92-98.
20. Borkan, G.A., Hults, D.E., Gerzof, S.G. Robbins, A.H. and Silbert, C.K. (1983) Age changes in body composition revealed by computed tomography. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 38, 673-677.
21. Bouchard, C. and Rankinen, T. (2001) Individual differences in response to regular physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33, S446-S451.
22. Bouchard, C. and Shephard, R.J. (1994) Physical activity, fitness, and health. The model and key concepts. In: Physical activity, fitness, and health. Ed: Bouchard, C., Shephard, R.J. and Stephens, T. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers. 77-88.
23. Brown W.F., Strong, M.J. and Snow, R.S. (1988) Methods for estimating numbers of motor units in biceps-brachialis muscles and losses of motor units with aging. Muscle & Nerve 11, 423-432.
24. Bruce, R.A., DeRouen, T.A. and Hossack, K.F. (1980) Value of maximal exercise tests in risk assessment of primary coronary heart disease events in healthy men. Five years' experience of the Seattle Heart Watch Study. The American Journal of Cardiology 46, 371-378.
25. Buccola, V.A. and Stone, W.J. (1975) Effects of jogging and cycling programs on physiological and personality variables in aged men. Research Quarterly 46, 135-139.
26. Carroll, J.F., Pollock, M.L., Graves, J.E., Leggett, S.H., Spitler, D.L. and Lowenthal, D.T. (1992) Incidence of injury during moderate- and high-intensity walking training in the elderly. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 47, M61-M66.
27. Charette, S.L., McEvoy, L., Pyka, G., Snow-Harter, C., Guido, D., Wiswell, A. and Marcus, R. (1991) Muscle hypertrophy response to resistance training in older women. Journal of Applied Physiology 70, 1912-1916.
28. Chua, T.P., Anker, S.D., Harrington, D. and Coats, A.J. (1995) Inspiratory muscle strength is a determinant of maximum oxygen consumption in chronic heart failure. British Heart Journal 74, 381-385.
29. Coggan, A.R., Spina, R.J., Rogers, M.A., King, D.S., Brown, M., Nemeth, P.M. and Holloszy, J.O. (1992) Histochemical and enzymatic comparison of the gastronemius muscle of young and elderly men and women. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 47, B71-B76.
30. Coggan, A.R., Abduljalil, A.M., Swanson S.C., Earle, M.S., Farris, J.W., Mendenhall, L.A. and Robitaille, P.M. (1993) Muscle metabolism during exercise in young and older untrained and endurance-trained men. Journal of Applied Physiology 75, 2125-2133.
31. Cole, C.R., Blackstone, E.H., Pashkow, F.J., Snader, C.E. and Lauer, M.S. (1999) Heart-rate recovery immediately after exercise as a predictor of mortality. The New England Journal of Medicine 341, 1351-1357.
32. Cotes, J.E. (1993) Lung function. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
33. Cox, D.R. (1972) Regression models and life-tables. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B 34,187-220.
34. Crapo, R.O. (1993) The aging lung. In: Pulmonary disease in the elderly. Ed: Mahler, D.A. New York: Marcel Dekker. 1-25.
35. Cunningham, D.A., Rechnitzer P.A., Howard, J.H. and Donner, A.P. (1987) Exercise training of men at retirement: a clinical trial. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 42, 17-23.
36. Curfman, G.D. and Hillis, D.L. (2003) A new look at cardiac exercise testing. The New England Journal of Medicine 348, 775-776.
37. Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle of life. John Murray, London.
38. [reprinted as Darwin, C. (1993). The origin of species. Random House, New York].
39. Davies, M.J. (1976) Pathology of the conducting system. In: Cardiology in old age. Eds: Caird, F.L., Dall, J.L.C. and Kennedy, R.D. New York: Plenum.
40. Dempsey, J.A. and Seals, D.R. (1995) Aging, exercise and cardiopulmonary function. In: Perspectives in exercise science and sports medicine: Exercise in older adults. Eds: Lamb, D.R., Gisolfi, G.V. and Nadel, E. Indianapolis: Benchmark Press. 237-297.
41. DeVries, H.A. (1970) Physiological effects of an exercise training regimen upon men aged 52 to 88. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 25, 325-336.
42. Dorn, J., Naughton, J., Imamura, D. and Trevisan, M. (1999) Results of a multicenter randomized clinical trial of exercise and long-term survival in myocardial infarction patients: the National Exercise and Heart Disease Project (NEHDP). Circulation 100, 1764-1769.
43. Ehsani, A.A., Ogawa, T., Miller, T.R., Spina, R.J. and Jilka, S.M. (1991) Exercise training improves left ventricular systolic function in older men. Circulation 83, 96-103.
44. Era, P., Schroll, M., Hagerup, L. and Schultz-Larsen Jürgensen, K. (2001) Changes in bicycle ergometer test performance and survival in men and women from 50 to 60 and 70 to 80 years of age: two longitudinal studies in the Glostrup (Denmark) population. Gerontology 47, 136-144.
45. Fagard, R., Thijs, L. and Amery, A. (1993) Age and the hemodynamic response to posture and to exercise. The American Journal of Geriatric Cardiology 2, 23-30.
46. Fiatarone, M.A., Marks, E.C., Ryan, N.D., Meredith, C.N., Lipsitz, L.A. and Evans, W.J. (1990) High-intensity strength training in nonagenarians. The Journal of the American Medical Association 263, 3029-3034.
47. Fiatarone, M.A., O'Neill, E.F., Ryan, N.D., Clements, K.M., Solares, G.R., Nelson, M.E., Roberts, S.B., Kehayias, J.J., Lipsitz, L.A. and Evans, W.J. (1994) Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. The New England Journal of Medicine 330, 1769-1775.
48. Fiatarone Singh, M.A. (2002) Exercise in the oldest old: some new insights and unanswered questions. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 50, 2089-2091.
49. Fitzgerald, M.D., Tanaka, H., Tran, Z.V. and Seals, D.R. (1997) Age-related declines in maximal aerobic capacity in regularly exercising vs. sedentary women: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Physiology 83, 160-165.
50. Fleg, J.L. (1986) Alterations in cardiovascular structure and function with advancing age. The American Journal of Cardiology 57, 33-44.
51. 2max. Journal of Applied Physiology 65, 1147-1151.
52. Fleg, J.L., Schulman, S.P., Gerstenblith, G., Becker L.C., O'Connor, F.C. and Lakatta, E.G. (1993) Additive effects of age and silent myocardial ischemia on the left ventricular response to upright cycle exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 75, 499-504.
53. Fleg, J.L. (1994) Effects of aging on the cardiovascular response to exercise. In: Cardiovascular response to exercise. Ed: Fletcher, G.F. New York: Futura Publishing Company, Inc. 387-404.
54. Fleg, J.L., O'Connor, F., Gerstenblith, G., Becker, L.C., Clulow, J., Schulman, S.P. and Lakatta, E.G. (1995) Impact of age on the cardiovascular response to dynamic upright exercise in healthy men and women. Journal of Applied Physiology 78, 890-900.
55. Fletcher, G.F., Balady, G., Froelicher, V.F., Hartley, L.H., Haskell, W.L. and Pollock, M.L. (1995) Exercise standards: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association Writing Group. Circulation 91, 580-615.
56. Folkow, B. and Svanborg, A. (1993) Physiology of cardiovascular aging. Physiological Reviews 73, 725-763.
57. Foster, V.L., Hume, G.J.E., Byrnes, W.C., Dickinson, A.L. and Chatfield, S.J. (1989) Endurance training for elderly women moderate vs. low intensity. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 44, M184-188.
58. Fox, S.M., Naughton, J.P. and Haskell, W.L. (1971) Physical activity and prevention of coronary disease. Annals of Clinical Research 3, 404-432.
59. Freund, B.J., Wade, C.J. and Claybaugh, J.R. (1988) Effects of exercise on atrial natriuretic factor: release mechanisms and implications for fluid homeostasis. Sports Medicine 6, 364-376.
60. Frontera, W.R., Meredith, C.N., O'Reilly, K.P., Knuttgen, H.G. and Evans, W.J. (1988) Strength conditioning in older men: skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improved function. Journal of Applied Physiology 64, 1038-1044.
61. Garcia, A., Valdes, M., Sanchez, V., Soria, F., Hernandez, A., Vicente, T., Perez, F. and Rodriguez, P. (1992) Cardiac rhythm in healthy elderly subjects. The Clinical Investigator 70, 130-135.
62. Gerstenblith, G., Fredriksen, J., Yin, F.C., Fortuin, N.J., Lakatta, E.G. and Weisfeldt, M.L. (1977) Echocardiographic assessment of a normal adult aging population. Circulation 56, 273-278.
63. Gerstenblith, G., Fleg, J.L., Van Tosh A., Weisfeldt, M., Lakatta, E.G. (1980) Stress testing redefines the prevalence of coronary artery disease in epidemiological studies (abstr). Circulation 62, III-308.
64. Gibbons, L., Blair, S.N., Kohl, H.W. and Cooper, K. (1989) The safety of maximal exercise testing. Circulation 80, 846-852.
65. Gill, T.M., DiPietro, L. and Krumholz, H.M. (2000) Role of exercise stress testing and safety monitoring for older persons starting an exercise program. The Journal of The American Medical Association 284, 342-349.
66. Glass, T.A., de Leon C.M., Marottoli, R.A. and Berkman, L.F. (1999) Population based study of social and productive activities as predictors of survival among elderly Americans. British Medical Journal 319, 478-483.
67. Glover, D.R., Robinson, C.S. and Murray, R.G. (1984) Diagnostic exercise testing in 104 patients over 65 years of age. European Heart Journal 5 Suppl E, 59-61.
68. Goraya, T.Y., Jacobsen, S.J., Pellikka, P.A., Miller, T.D., Khan, A., Weston, S.A., Gersh, B.J. and Roger, V.L. (2000) Prognostic value of treadmill exercise testing in elderly persons. Annals of Internal Medicine 132, 862-870.
69. Green, J.S. and Crouse, S.F. (1993) Endurance training, cardiovascular function and the aged. Sports Medicine 16, 331-341.
70. Green, J.S. and Crouse, S.F. (1995) The effects of endurance training on functional capacity in the elderly: a meta-analysis. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27, 920-926.
71. Grimby, G. and Saltin, B. (1983) The ageing muscle. Clinical Physiology 3, 209-218.
72. Grimby, G. (1986) Physical activity and muscle training in the elderly. Acta Medica Scandinavica Suppl. 711, 233-237.
73. Gulati, M., Pandey, D.K, Arnsdorf, M.F., Lauderdale, D.S., Thisted, R.A., Wicklund, R.H., Al-Hani, A.J. and Black, H.R. (2003) Exercise capacity and the risk of death in women. The St James Women Take Heart Project. Circulation 108, 1554-1559.
74. Hagberg, J.M., Graves, J.E., Limacher, M., Woods, D.R., Leggett, S.H., Cononie, C., Gruber, J.J. and Pollock, M.L. (1989) Cardiovascular responses of 70- to 79-yr-old men and women to exercise training. Journal of Applied Physiology 66, 2589-2594.
75. Hagerman, F.C., Walsh, S.J., Staron, R.S., Hikida, R.S., Gilders, R.M., Murray, T.F., Toma, K. and Ragg, K.E. (2000) Effects of high-intensity resistance training on untrained older men. I. Strength, cardiovascular, and metabolic responses. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 55, B336-B346.
76. Hamdorf, P.A., Withers, R.T., Penhall, R.K. and Haslam, M.V. (1992) Physical training effects on the fitness and habitual activity patters of elderly women. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 73, 603-608.
77. Harms, C.A. and Stager, J.M. (1995) Low chemoresponsiveness and inadequate hyperventilation contribute to exercise-induced hypoxemia. Journal of Applied Physiology 79, 575-580.
78. Harridge, S.D.R. (2003) Ageing and local growth factors in muscle. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 13, 34-39.
79. Haskell, W.L. (1978) Design of cardiac conditioning program. Cardiovascular Clinics 9, 93-106.
80. Head, A. (1999) Exercise metabolism and beta-blocker therapy. An update. Sports Medicine 27, 81-96.
81. Heath, G.W., Hagberg, J.M., Ehsani, A.A. and Holloszy, J.O. (1981) A physiological comparison of young and older endurance athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology 51, 634-640.
82. Hedblad, B., Juul-Moller, S., Svensson, K., Hanson, B.S., Isacsson, S.O., Janzon, L., Lindell, S.E., Steen, B. and Johansson, B.W. (1989) Increased mortality in men with ST segment depression during 24h ambulatory long-term ECG recording. Results from prospective population study 'Men born in 1914', from Malmö, Sweden. European Heart Journal 10, 149-158.
83. Heikkinen, E. (1997) Functional capacity and health of elderly people. The Evergreen project. Background, design, and methods of the project. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine Suppl. 53, 1-18.
84. 2peak and the capillary supply to skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology 82, 1305-1310.
85. Hirvensalo, M., Lampinen, P. and Rantanen, T. (1998) Physical exercise in old age: an eight-year follow-up study on involvement, motives, and obstacles among persons aged 65-84. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 6, 157-168.
86. Hollenberg, M., Ngo, L.H., Tumer, D. and Tager, I.B. (1998) Treadmill exercise testing in an epidemiologic study of elderly subjects. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 53A, B259-B267.
87. Holubarsch, C., Goulette, R.P., Litten, R.Z., Martin, B.J., Mulieri, L.A. and Alpert, R.N. (1985) The economy of isometric force development, myosin isoenzyme pattern and myofibrillar ATPase activity in normal and hypothyroid rat myocardium. Circulation Research 56, 78-86.
88. Huikuri, H.V., Castellanos, A. and Myerburg, R. (2001) Sudden death due to cardiac arrhythmias. The New England Journal of Medicine 345, 1473-1492.
89. Hurel, S.J., Koppiker, N., Newkirk, J., Close, P.R., Miller, M., Mardell, R., Wood, P.J and Kendall-Taylor, P. (1999) Relationship of physical exercise and ageing to growth hormone production. Clinical Endocrinology 51, 687-691.
90. Ingram, D.K. (1999) Design of cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential studies in gerontology. In: Methods in aging research. Ed: Yu, P.B. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 25-42.
91. Jackson, A.S., Wier, L.T., Ayers, G.W., Beard, E.F., Stuteville, J.E. and Blair, S.N. (1996) Changes in aerobic power, ages 20-64. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 28, 884-891.
92. Jondeau, G., Katz, S.D., Zohman, L., Goldberger, M., McCarthy, M., Bourdarias, J.P., LeJemtel, T.H. (1992) Active skeletal muscle mass and cardiopulmonary reserve. Failure to attain peak aerobic capacity during maximal bicycle exercise in patients with severe congestive heart failure. Circulation 86, 1351-1356.
93. Jones, N.L. and Killian, K.J. (2000) Exercise limitations in health and disease. The New England Journal of Medicine 343, 632-641.
94. Jouven, X., Zureik, M., Desnos, M., Courbon, D. and Ducimetiere, P. (2000) Long-term outcome in asymptomatic men with exercise-induced premature ventricular depolarizations. The New England Journal of Medicine 343, 826-833.
95. Kallinen, M. and Markku, A [Erratum: Alen, M.]. (1995) Aging, physical activity and sports injuries: an overview of common sports injuries in the elderly. Sports Medicine 20, 41-52.
96. Kaplan, G.A., Seeman, T.E., Cohen, R.D., Knudsen, L.P. and Guralnik, J. (1987) Mortality among the elderly in the Alameda County Study: behavioural and demographic risk factors. The American Journal of Public Health 77, 307-312.
97. Karvonen, M., Kentala, K. and Mustala, O. (1957) The effects of training on heart rate: a longitudinal study. Annales Medicinae Experimentalis et Biologicae Fenniae 35, 307-315.
98. Kasch, F.W., Boyer, J.L., van Camp, S.P., Verity, L.S. and Wallace, J.P. (1993) Effect of exercise on cardiovascular ageing. Age and Ageing 22, 5-10.
99. Kasch, F.W., Boyer, J.L., Schmidt, P.K., Wells, R.H., Wallace, J.P., Verity, L.S., Guy, H. and Schneider, D. (1999) Ageing of the cardiovascular system during 33 years of aerobic exercise. Age and Ageing 28, 531-536.
100. Katzel, L.I., Fleg, J.L., Busby-Whitehead, M.J., Sorkin, J.D., Becker, L.C., Lakatta, E.G. and Goldberg, A.P. (1998) Exercise-induced silent myocardial ischemia in master athletes. The American Journal of Cardiology 81, 261-265.
101. Katzel, L.I., Sorkin, J.D. and Fleg, J.L. (2001) A comparison of longitudinal changes in aerobic fitness in older endurance athletes and sedentary men. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 49, 1657-1664.
102. Kennedy, H.L., Caralis, D.G., Khan, M.A., Poblete, P.F, and Pescarmona, J.E. (1977) Ventricular arrhythmia 24 hours before and after maximal treadmill testing. American Heart Journal 94, 718-724.
103. Kesäniemi, Y.A., Danforth, E. Jr., Jensen, M.D., Kopelman, P.G., Lefebvre, P. and Reeder, B.A. (2001) Dose-response issues concerning physical activity and health: an evidence-based symposium. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33, S351-S358.
104. 2max to training in 60-71 yr olds. Journal of Applied Physiology 71, 2004-2011.
105. Kohrt, W.M., Spina, R.J., Ehsani, A.A. and Holloszy, J.O. (1993) Effects of age, adiposity, and fitness level on plasma catecholamine responses to standing and exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 75, 1828-1835.
106. Kohrt, W.M., Spina, R.J., Holloszy, J.O. and Ehsani, A.A. (1998) Prescribing exercise intensity for older women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 46, 129-133.
107. Kolodgie, F.D., Gold, H.K., Burke, A.P., Fowler, D.R., Kruth, H.S., Weber, D.K., Farb, A., Guerrero, L.J., Hayase, M., Kutys, R., Narula, J., Finn, A.V. and Virmani, R. (2003) Intraplaque hemorrhage and progression of coronary atheroma. The New England Journal of Medicine 349, 2316-2325.
108. Kujala, U.M., Kaprio, J. and Koskenvuo, M. (2002) Modifiable risk factors as predictors of all-cause mortality: the role of genetics and childhood environment. American Journal of Epidemiology 156, 985-993.
109. Lakatta, E.G. (1980) Excitation-concentration. In: The aging heart. Ed: Weisfeldt, M.L. New York: Raven. 77-100.
110. Lakatta, E.G. (1987) Cardiac muscle changes in senescence. Annual Review of Physiology 49, 519-531.
111. Lakatta, E.G. (1993) Cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms in advanced age. Physiological Reviews 73, 413-465.
112. Lakka, T.A., Venäläinen, J.M., Rauramaa, R., Salonen, R., Tuomilehto, J. and Salonen, J.T. (1994) Relation of leisure-time physical acivity and cardiorespiratory fitness to the risk of acute myocardial infarction in men. The New England Journal of Medicine 330, 1549-1554.
113. Lantz, P.M., House, J.S., Lepkowski, J.M., Williams, D.R., Mero, R.P. and Chen, J. (1998) Socioeconomic factors, health behaviours, and mortality. The Journal of The American Medical Association 279, 1703-1708.
114. Larsson, L. and Karlsson, J. (1978) Isometric and dynamic endurance as a function of age and skeletal muscle characteristics. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 104, 129-136.
115. Lassila, M. (1910) Tulitikkuja lainaamassa. Kustannus Oy Kansa, Helsinki. (In Finnish).
116. Laukkanen, P., Heikkinen, E., Kauppinen, M. and Kallinen, M. (1992) Use of drugs by non-institutionalized urban Finns born in 1904-1923 and the association of drug use with mood and self-rated health. Age and Ageing 21, 343-352.
117. Laukkanen, P., Kauppinen, M., Era, P. and Heikkinen, E. (1993) Factors related to coping with physical and instrumental activities of daily living among people born in 1904-1923. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 8, 287-296.
118. Lee, D. and Desu, M. (1972) A computer program for comparing samples with right-censored data. Computer Programs in Biomedicine 2, 215-21l.
119. Lerman, A., Gibbons, R.J., Rodeheffer, R.J., Bailey, K.R., McKinley, L.J., Heublein, D.M. and Burnett, J.C. Jr. (1993) Circulating N-terminal atrial natriuretic peptide as a marker for symptomless left-ventricular dysfunction. Lancet 341, 1105-1109.
120. Lexell, J, Henriksson-Larsen K and Sjöström M. (1983) Distribution of different fiber types in human skeletal muscles. 2. A study of cross-sections of whole m. vastus lateralis. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 117, 115-122.
121. Lexell, J., Taylor, C.C. and Sjöström, M. (1988) What is the cause of ageing atrophy? Total number, size and proportion of different fiber types studied in whole vastus lateralis muscle 15- to 83-year-old men. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 84, 275-294.
122. Lexell, J. (1995) Human aging, muscle mass, and fiber type composition. The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences 50, 11-16.
123. Linderholm, H., Müller, R., Ringqvist, T. and Sörnäs, R. (1969) Hereditary abnormal muscle metabolism with hyperkinetic circulation during exercise. Acta Medica Scandinavica 185, 153-166.
124. Lindsay, D.C., Lovegrove, C.A., Dunn, M.J., Bennett, J.G., Pepper, J.R., Yacoub, M.H. and Poole-Wilson, P.A. (1996) Histological abnormalities of muscle from limb, thorax, and diaphragm in chronic heart failure. European Heart Journal 17, 1239-1250.
125. Malbut, K.E., Dinan, S. and Young, A. (2002) Aerobic training in the 'oldest old': the effect of 24 weeks of training. Age and Ageing 31, 255-260.
126. Mandroukas, K., Zakas, K., Aggelopoulou, N., Christoulas, K., Abatzides, G. and Karamouzis, M. (1995) Atrial natriuretic factor responses to submaximal and maximal exercise. British Journal of Sports Medicine 29, 248-251.
127. Marin, M. (1988) Movement and sport during the lifespan. Studies in Education, Psychology and Social Research 42. University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
128. Mayuga, R., Arrington, C.T., O'Connor, F.C. and Fleg, J.L. (1996) Why do exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias increase with age? Role of M-mode echocardiographic aging studies. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 51, M23-28.
129. McCartney, N., Hicks, A.L., Martin, J. and Weber, C.E. (1995) Long-term resistance training in the elderly: effects on dynamic strength, exercise capacity, muscle, and bone. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 50, 97-104.
130. McGuire, D.K., Levine, B.D., Williamson, J.W., Snell, P.G., Blomqvist, C.G., Saltin, B. and Mitchell, J.H. (2001) A 30-year follow-up of the Dallas Bed Rest and Training Study. II. effect of age on cardiovascular adaptation to exercise training. Circulation 104, 1358-1366.
131. McHenry, P.L., O'Donnell, J., Morris, S.N. and Jordan, J.J. (1984) The abnormal exercise electrocardiogram in apparently healthy men: a predictor of angina of angina pectoris as an initial coronary event during follow-up. Circulation 70, 547-551.
132. Meredith, C.N., Frontera, W.R., Fisher, E.C., Hughes, V.A., Herland, J.C., Edwards, J. and Evans, W.J. (1989)Peripheral effects of endurance training in young and old subjects. Journal of Applied Physiology 66, 2844-2849.
133. Messinger-Rapport, B., Pothier Snader, C.E., Blackstone, E.H., Yu, D. and Lauer, M.S. (2003) Value of exercise capacity and heart rate recovery in older people. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 51, 63-68.
134. Meyer, F.J., Borst, M.M., Zugck, C., Kirschke, A., Schellberg, D., Kubler, W. and Haass, M. (2001) Respiratory muscle dysfunction in congestive heart failure. Clinical correlation and prognostic significance. Circulation 103, 2153-2158.
135. Miller, R.A. (1999) Kleemeir award lecture: are there genes for aging? The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 54, B297-B307.
136. Mittleman, M.A., Maclure, M., Tofler, G.H., Sherwood, J.B., Goldberg, R.J. and Muller, J.E. (1993) Triggering of acute myocardial infarction by heavy physical exertion. Protection against triggering by regular exertion. The New England Journal of Medicine 329, 1677-1683.
137. Morey, M.C., Schenkman, M., Studenski, S.A., Chandler, J.M., Crowley, G.M., Sullivan, R.J. Jr, Pieper, C.F., Doyle, M.E., Higginbotham, M.B., Horner, R.D., MacAller, H., Puglisi, C.M., Morris, K.G. and Weinberger, M. (1999) Spinal-flexibility-plus-aerobic versus aerobic-only training: effects of a randomized clinical trial on function in at-risk older adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 54A, M335-M342.
138. Muller, J.E., Tofler, G.H. and Stone, P.H. (1989) Circadian variation and triggers of onset of acute cardiovascular disease. Circulation 79, 733-743.
139. Muller, J.E., Mittlemann, M. and Tofler, G. (1994) Exercise as a trigger of onset of myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. In: Cardiovascular response to exercise. Ed: Fletcher, G.F. New York, Mount Kisco: Futura Publishing Company, Inc. 255-271.
140. Myers, J., Prakash, M., Froelicher, V., Partington, S. and Atwood, J.E. (2002) Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. The New England Journal of Medicine 346, 793-801.
141. Ogawa, T., Spina, R.J., Martin, W.H. 3rd, Kohrt, W.M., Schechtman, K.B., Holloszy, J.O. and Ehsani, A.A. (1992) Effects of aging, sex, and physical training on cardiovascular responses to exercise. Circulation 86, 494-503.
142. Olivetti, G., Melissari, M., Capasso, J.M. and Anversa, P. (1991) Cardiomyopathy of the aging human heart: myocyte loss and reactive cellular hypertrophy: Circulation Research 68, 1560-1568.
143. Onder, G., Penninx, B.W., Balkrishnan, R., Fried, L.P., Chaves, P.H., Williamson, J., Carter, C., Di Bari, M., Guralnik, J.M. and Pahor, M. (2002) Relation between use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and muscle strength and physical function in older women: an observational study. Lancet 359, 926-930.
144. O'Rourke, M. (1990) Arterial stiffness, systolic blood pressure, and logical treatment of arterial hypertension. Hypertension 15, 637-651.
145. Paffenbarger, R.S., Hyde, R.T., Wing, A.L. and Hsieh, C.C. (1986) Physical activity, all-cause mortality, and longevity of college alumni. The New England Journal of Medicine 314, 605-613.
146. Paffenbarger, R.S. Jr, Hyde, R.T., Wing, A.L., Lee, I.M., Jung, D.L. and Kampert, J.B. (1995) The association of changes in physical activity level and other life-style characteristics with mortality among men. The Journal of The American Medical Association 273, 1093-1098.
147. 2 during submaximal exercise in the elderly. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 51, M165-M171.
148. Paterson, D.J. (1996) Antiarrhythmic mechanisms during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 80, 1853-1862.
149. Peel, C. and Mossberg, K.A. (1995) Effects of cardiovascular medications on exercise responses. Physical Therapy 75, 387-396.
150. Philbin, E.F., Groff, G.D., Ries, M.D. and Miller, T.E. (1995) Cardiovascular fitness and health in patients with end-stage osteoarthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 38, 799-805.
151. Pollock, M.L., Foster, C., Knapp, D., Rod, J.L. and Schmidt, D.H. (1987) Effect of age on training on aerobic capacity and body composition of master athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology 62, 725-731.
152. Pollock, M.L., Carroll, J.F., Graves, J.E., Leggett, S.H., Braith, R.W., Limacher, M. and Hagberg, J.M. (1991) Injuries and adherence to walk/jog and resistance training programs in the elderly. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23, 1194-1200.
153. Pollock, M.L., Franklin, B.A., Balady, G.J., Chaitman, B.L., Fleg, J.L., Fletcher, B., Limacher, M., Pina, I.L., Stein, R.A., Williams, M. and Bazzarre, T. (2000) AHA Science Advisory. Resistance exercise in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: benefits, rationale, safety, and prescription: An advisory from the Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association; Position paper endorsed by the American College of Sports Medicine. Circulation 101, 828-833.
154. Posner, J.D., McCully, K.K., Landsberg, L.A., Sands, L.P., Tycenski, P., Hofmann, M.T., Wetterholt, K.L. and Shaw, C.E. (1995) Physical determinants of independence in mature women. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 76, 373-380.
155. Puggaard, L., Larsen, J.B., Stovring, H. and Jeune, B. (2000) Maximal oxygen uptake, muscle strength and walking speed in 85-year-old women: effects
156. Reiser, K.M., Hennessy, S.M. and Last, J.A. (1987) Analysis of age-associated changes in collagen crosslinking in the skin and lung in monkeys and rats. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 926, 339-348.
157. Rice, C.L., Cunningham, D.A., Paterson, D.H. and Dickinson, J.R. (1993) Strength training alters contractile properties of the triceps brachii in men aged 65-78 years. European Journal of Applied Physiology 66, 275-280.
158. Ries, M.D., Philbin, E.F. and Groff, G.D. (1995) Relationship between severity of gonarthrosis and cardiovascular fitness. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 313, 169-176.
159. 2max with aging in master athletes and sedentary men. Journal of Applied Physiology 68, 2195-2199.
160. Rywik, T.M., Zink, R.C., Neil, S., Khan, A.A., Wright, J.G., O'Connor, F.C. and Fleg, J.L. (1998) Independent prognostic significance of ischemic ST-segment response limited to recovery from treadmill exercise in asymptomatic subjects. Circulation 97, 2117-2122.
161. Saltin, B. (1986) The aging endurance athlete. In: Sports Medicine for the mature athlete. Eds: Sutton, R.J. and Brock, R.M. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press: 59-120.
162. Sandvik, L., Erikssen, J., Thaulow, E., Erikssen, G., Mundal, R. and Rodahl, K. (1993) Physical fitness as a predictor of mortality among healthy, middle-aged Norwegian men. The New England Journal of Medicine 328, 533-537.
163. Seale, P. and Rudnicki, M.A. (2000) A new look at the origin, function, and "stem cell" status of muscle satellite cells. Developmental Biology 218, 115-124.
164. Seals, D.R., Hagberg, J.M., Hurley, B.F., Ehsani, A.A. and Holloszy, J.O. (1984) Effects of endurance training on glucose tolerance and plasma lipid levels in older men and women. The Journal of The American Medical Association 252, 645-649.
165. Shaw, C.E., McCully, K.K. and Posner, J.D. (1995) Injuries during one repetition maximum assessment in the elderly. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation 15, 283-287.
166. Shephard, R.J. (1997a) Impact of aging on major physiological systems at rest and during submaximal and maximal exercise. In: Aging, physical activity, and health. Ed: Shephard, R.J. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 57-138.
167. Shephard, R.J. (1997b) Impact of regular physical activity on age-associated changes in physiological systems. In: Aging, physical activity, and health. Ed: Shephard, R.J. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 139-197.
168. Shephard, R.J. (1997c) Risks of increased physical activity in older people. In: Aging, physical activity, and health. Ed: Shephard, R.J. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 177-186.
169. Sidney, K.H., Shephard, R.J. (1978) Frequency and intensity of exercise training for elderly subjects. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 10, 125-31.
170. Sipilä, S. and Suominen, H. (1993) Muscle ultrasonography and computed tomography in elderly trained and untrained women. Muscle & Nerve 16, 294-300.
171. Sipilä, S. and Suominen, H. (1994) Knee extension strength and walking speed in relation to guadriceps muscle composition and training in elderly women. Clinical Physiology 14, 433-442.
172. Sipilä, S., Multanen, J., Kallinen, M., Era, P. and Suominen, H. (1996) Effects of strength and endurance training on isometric muscle strength and walking speed in elderly women. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 156, 457-464.
173. Sipilä, S., Taaffe, D., Cheng, S., Puolakka, J., Toivanen, J. and Suominen, H. (2001) Effects of hormone replacement therapy and high-impact physical exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Clinical Science 101, 147-157.
174. Skelton, D.A., Young, A., Creig, C.A. and Malbut, K.M. (1995) Effects of resistance training on strength, power and selected functional abilities on women aged 75 and older. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 43, 1081-1087.
175. Skelton, D.A., Phillips, S.K., Bruce, S.A., Naylor, C.H. and Woledge, R.C. (1999) Hormone replacement therapy increases isometric muscle strength of adductor pollicis in post-menopausal women. Clinical Science 96, 357-367.
176. Spina, R.J., Ogawa, T., Miller, T.R., Kohrt, W. and Ehsani, A.A. (1993) Effect of exercise training on left ventricular performance in older women free of cardiopulmonary disease. The American Journal of Cardiology 71, 99-104.
177. Spirduso, W.W. (1995) Physical functioning of the old and oldest old. In: Physical dimensions of aging. Ed: Spirduso, W.W. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 329-365.
178. Stanley, S.N. and Taylor, N.A. (1993) Isokinematic muscle mechanics in four groups of women of increasing age. European Journal of Applied Physiology 66, 178-184.
179. Stratton, J.R., Levy, W.C., Wayne, C., Cerqueira, M.D., Schwartz, R.S. and Abrass, I.B. (1994) Cardiovascular responses to exercise: effects of aging and exercise training in healthy men. Circulation 89, 1648-1655.
180. Suominen, H., Heikkinen, E., Liesen, H., Michel, D. and Hollman, W. (1977a) Effects of 8 weeks' endurance training on skeletal muscle metabolism in 56-70- year- old sedentary men. European Journal of Applied Physiology 37, 173-180.
181. Suominen, H., Heikkinen, E. and Parkatti, T. (1977b) Effect of eight weeks' physical training on muscle and connective tissue of the m. vastus lateralis in 69-year-old men and women. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 32, 33-37.
182. Swinne, C.J., Shapiro, E.P., Lima, S.D. and Fleg, J.L. (1992) Age-associated changes in left ventricular diastolic performance during isometric exercise in normal subjects. The American Journal of Cardiology 69, 823-826.
183. Taaffe, D.R., Pruitt, L., Pyka, G., Guido, D. and Marcus, R. (1996) Comparative effects of high- and low-intensity resistance training on thigh muscle strength, fiber area, and tissue composition in elderly women. Clinical Physiology 16, 381-92.
184. Teramoto, S., Fukuchi, Y., Nagase, T., Matsuse, T. and Orimo, H. (1995) A comparison of ventilatory components in young and elderly men during exercise: The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 50A, B34-B39.
185. Thibault, G., Garcia, R., Gutkowska, J., Bilodeau, J., Lazure, C., Seidah, N.G., Chretien, M., Genest, J. and Cantin, M. (1987) The propeptide Asn1-Tyr126 is the storage form of rat atrial natriuretic factor. The Biochemical Journal 241,265-272.
186. 2-terminal fragment of proatrial natriuretic factor in the circulation: identification, radioimmunoassay and half-life. Peptides 9, 47-53.
187. Thurlbeck, W.M. (1991) Morphology of the aging lung. In: The lung. Eds: Crystal, R.G. and West, J.B. New York: Raven Press. 1743-1748.
188. Tockmann, M.S. (1994) Aging of the respiratory system. In: Principles of geriatric medicine and gerontology. Eds: Hazzard, W.R., Biermann, E.L., Blass, J.P., Ettinger, W.H. and Halter, J.B. New York: McGraw-Hill. 555-564.
189. Trappe, S.W., Costill, D.L., Vukovich, M.D., Jones, J.J. and Melham, T. (1996) Aging among elite distance runners: a 22-yr longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Physiology 60, 285-290.
190. Tzankoff, S.P., Robinson, S., Pyke, F.S. and Brawn, C.A. (1972) Physiological adjustments to work in older men as affected by physical training. Journal of Applied Physiology 33, 346-350.
191. th Revision, Vol. 1, Geneva.
192. th Revision, Vol. 1, Geneva.
193. Willich, S.N., Lewis, M., Löwel, H., Arntz, H.R., Schubert, F. and Schröder, R. (1993) Physical exertion as a trigger of acute myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine 329, 1684-1690.
194. i in humans: a 31P-NMR study. Journal of Applied Physiology 64, 2333-2339.
195. Wilson, T.M. and Tanaka, H. (2000) Meta-analysis of the age-associated decline in maximal aerobic capacity in men: relation to training status. American Journal of Physiology 278, H829-H834.
196. Vaitkevicius, P.V., Ebersold, C., Shah, M.S., Gill, N.S., Katz, R.L., Narrett, M.J., Applebaum, G.E., Parrish, S.M., O'Connor, F.C. and Fleg, J.L. (2002) Effects of aerobic exercise training in community-based subjects aged 80 and older: a pilot study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 50, 2009-2013
197. Van Camp, S.P. and Boyer, J.L. (1989) Exercise guidelines for the elderly. The Physician and Sportsmedicine 17, 83-95.
198. Vuolteenaho, O. (1985a) Radioimmunoassay for beta-endorphin (1-18), a novel pituitary peptide derived from propriomelanocortin. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 130, 1226-1232.
199. Vuolteenaho, O., Arjamaa, O. and Ling, N. (1985b) Atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP): rat atria store high molecular weight precursor but secrete processed peptides of 25-35 amino acids. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 129, 82-88.
200. Vuolteenaho, O., Koistinen, P., Martikkala, V., Takala, T. and Leppäluoto, J. (1992) Effect of physical exercise in hypobaric conditions on atrial natriuretic peptide secretion. American Journal of Physiology 263, R647-R652.
201. Vuori, I. (1995) Exercise and sudden cardiac death: effects of age and type of activity. Sports Science Reviews 4, 46-84.
202. Younes, A., Boluyt, M.O., O'Neill, L., Meredith, A.L., Crow, M.T. and Lakatta, E.G. (1995) Age-associated increase in rat ventricular ANP gene expression correlates with cardiac hypertrophy. American Journal of Physiology 38, H1003-H1008.